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China: The events and how they werevveru portrayed purtrayedill in pi-iiiî£u~yj and middle Schuuls In Bêÿlng, August—December 1989 Levitt, Gregory Alan, Ph.D. The Ohio State University, 1990 Copyright ©1990 by Levitt, Gregory Alan. All rights reserved. UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106 THE 1989 BEIJING SPRING, P.R. CHINA: THE EVENTS AND HOW THEY WERE PORTRAYED IN PRIMARY AND MIDDLE SCHOOLS IN BEIJING, AUGUST-DECEMBER 1989 DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Gregory A. Levitt, B.A., M.A. ***** The Ohio State University 1990 Dissertation Committee: Approved by M. Eugene Gilliom Merry M. Merryfield |V\» A(wi ser Elsie Alberty College of Education Copyright by Gregory A. Levitt 1990 To my family and friends and to the people of Beijing who asked me to "tell the world what really happened" n ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I express sincere appreciation to Dr. M. Eugene Gilliom for his guidance and insight throughout my doctoral program and the research. Thanks go to the other members of my advisory committee, Drs. Elsie Alberty and Merry Merryfield, for their suggestions and comments. Special gratitude is expressed to David Carrevello, Brad Simpson, Chen Lejen, and CBS News Beijing for their support and encouragement. Sincere appreciation is expressed to the numerous people, who wish to remain anonymous, for their considerable assistance and insight. Special appreciation is expressed to Donald Nicholos and Nancy Graham for their support throughout the research. The technical assistance of Lynn Hockaden is gratefully acknowledged. To Steve Courts, Terri Ziegle, Melinda Grote, Michael Rohrig, and Steven Winslow I offer sincere thanks for your friendship and understanding. To my son. Josh, I thank you for understanding my frequent absences. m VITA January 12, 1952 ............................................. Born - Memphis, Tennessee 1975 ..................................................................... B.A., Capital University, Columbus, Ohio 1976-1985 ............................................................. Teacher, Father Wehrle High School, Columbus, Ohio 1985-1988 ............................................................. Graduate Teaching Associate, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 1988 ......................................................................M.A., The Ohio State Univer­ sity, Columbus, Ohio 1988 ...................................................................... Chinese Language C ertificate, Beijing Language Institute, Beijing, People's Republic of China 1988-1989 ............................................................. Instructor, Beijing Univer­ sity of Aeronautical and Astronautical Engineering, Beijing, People's Republic of China 1989 ......................................................................Consultant, CBS News, Beijing, People's Republic of China 1989-Present ..................................................... Graduate Teaching Associate, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: Social Studies/Global Education Studies in Curriculum and Instruction, Professor Elsie Alberty Studies in Chinese Politics, Professor Michael Lampton IV TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................... iii VITA............................................................................................................................ iv LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................v iii LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................... ix CHAPTER PAGE I. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 1 Statement of the Problem ...................................................... 1 Methodology .................................................................................. 5 E t h i c s ........................................................................................... 23 Limitations of the Study ...................................................... 28 The Trustworthiness of the Study ..................................... 29 Definition of Key Terms .......................................................... 35 Outline of the Dissertation .................................................. 40 II. HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN CHINA...................................................... 42 Introduction .............................................................................. 42 Education in Traditional China, 1122 B.C.-1911 . 43 Educational Policies in China, 1911-1949 ................... 45 Educational Policies under Mao, 1949-1966 ................... 52 Educational Policies under Mao, 1966-1976 ................... 59 Educational Policies in the post-Mao Era, 1976—P re se n t ...................................................................... 64 Summary........................................................................................... 73 III. AN OVERVIEW OF DEMOCRACY MOVEMENTS IN CHINA ......................... 77 Introduction .............................................................................. 77 The Scholars' Protest—1895 .................................................. 78 The 1898 R efo rm s ...................................................................... 81 Reform and Revolutionary Movements, 1898-1911 .... 83 Republicanism (1911-1916) to Warlordism (1916-1927) .......................................................................... 92 The New Culture Movementand Nationalistic Fervor . 94 The May Fourth Movement .......................................................... 96 The May 30th Incident (May 30, 1925) and Its A fterm ath .............................................................................. 100 December 9th Movement .............................................................. 107 The Hundred Flowers Campaign .............................................. Ill The Tiananmen Incident--1976 .............................................. 118 The Democracy Wall Movement, November 1978— December 1979 ....................................................................... 121 Student Demonstrations—1986 .............................................. 134 Summary........................................................................................... 154 IV. THE BEIJING SPRING 159 Introduction 159 Apr 15, 1989 . 160 Apr 16-17, 1989 162 Apr 18, 1989 . 163 Apr 19, 1989 . 167 Apr 20, 1989 . 168 Apr 21, 1989 . 169 Apr 22, 1989 . 172 Apr 23, 1989 . 175 Apr 24, 1989 . 176 Apr 25, 1989 . 177 Apr 26, 1989 . 178 Apr 27, 1989 . 179 Apr 28, 1989 . 181 Apr 29, 1989 . 182 Apr 30—May 2, 1989 .............................................................. 185 May 3, 1989 186 May 4, 1989 ................................................................................... 187 May 5, 1989 ................................................................................... 193 May 6-8, 1989 ............................................................................... 194 May 9, 1989 ............................................................................... 196 May 10, 1989 ........................................................................... 198 May 11, 1989 .......................................................................... 199 May 12, 1989 ........................................................................... 199 May 13, 1989 ........................................................................... 201 May 14, 1989 ........................................................................... 204 May 15, 1989 ........................................................................... 207 May 16, 1989 ..........................................................................