This is an IWMI project publication – “Groundwater governance in the Arab World – Taking Stock and addressing the challenges” This publication was made possible through support provided by the Middle East Regional Platform, U.S. Agency for International Development, under the terms of Award AID-263- IO-13-00005. DISCLAIMER The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of IWMI, the U.S. Agency for International Development or the United States government. Cover photo credit: Wafa Ghazouani (Tunisia). 2 Table of contents Foreword ............................................................................................................................... 9 Section 1. Groundwater governance in the MENA region Part 1. Groundwater resources, use, and governance in the MENA region 1 Morocco ........................................................................................................................13 1.1 Groundwater resources and abstraction in Morocco .................................................... 13 1.2 Legislation to regulate groundwater abstraction in Morocco........................................ 16 1.3 Enforcement difficulties and perverse incentives .......................................................... 18 1.4 The 'Aquifer contract' as a groundwater regulatory tool in Morocco ........................... 20 1.5 Groundwater abstraction in the Souss Region, Morocco .............................................. 21 1.5.1 Groundwater management and the ‘contrat the nappe’ in the Souss .................. 21 1.5.2 Groundwater development in the Upper Souss Basin ........................................... 23 1.6 Traditional irrigation and groundwater abstraction systems in Morocco ..................... 25 1.7 Groundwater user strategies in Morocco ...................................................................... 29 2 Algeria ...........................................................................................................................30 2.1 Groundwater resources and abstraction in Algeria ....................................................... 30 2.2 Groundwater regulations ............................................................................................... 31 2.3 Groundwater abstraction in the Mitidja plain, Algeria .................................................. 32 2.4 Traditional groundwater abstraction systems in Algeria ............................................... 33 2.5 Land, inequality and groundwater abstraction in Ouarizane ......................................... 33 3 Tunisia...........................................................................................................................34 3.1 Groundwater resources in Tunisia.................................................................................. 34 3.2 Groundwater management and regulation in Tunisia ................................................... 36 3.3 Groundwater overexploitation in Tunisia....................................................................... 38 3.4 Measures to curb groundwater use in Tunisia ............................................................... 40 3.5 Tunisia’s model of decentralized groundwater management ....................................... 42 3.6 Authorizations and enforcement ................................................................................... 44 3.7 Groundwater in the Merguellil basin, Tunisia ................................................................ 45 3.8 Groundwater management in Tunisia’s oases ............................................................... 48 4 Libya .............................................................................................................................49 4.1 Groundwater resources in Libya..................................................................................... 49 4.2 Groundwater abstraction in Libya .................................................................................. 49 5 Egypt .............................................................................................................................50 5.1 Groundwater resources in Egypt .................................................................................... 50 5.2 Groundwater regulation in Egypt ................................................................................... 51 5.3 Groundwater abstraction in the Nile delta .................................................................... 52 5.4 Groundwater abstraction in the Western Desert, Egypt................................................ 53 5.5 Egypt’s new reclamation plans for the Western Desert................................................. 56 6 Sudan ............................................................................................................................57 6.1 Groundwater in Sudan .................................................................................................... 57 6.2 Groundwater-fed irrigation in Northern Sudan ............................................................. 58 7 Lebanon ........................................................................................................................59 3 7.1 Groundwater resources and abstraction in Lebanon ..................................................... 59 7.2 Groundwater use in the Bekaa Valley ............................................................................ 60 7.3 Groundwater regulation and development in Lebanon ................................................. 61 8 Syria ..............................................................................................................................63 8.1 Groundwater resources and abstraction in Syria ........................................................... 63 8.2 Regulation of groundwater abstraction and wells in Syria ............................................ 64 8.3 Perverse incentives for agriculture leading to groundwater over-abstraction .............. 65 8.4 Traditional groundwater management systems in Syria................................................ 66 9 Jordan ...........................................................................................................................66 9.1 Groundwater resources and abstraction in Jordan ........................................................ 66 9.2 Groundwater abstraction in Azraq ................................................................................. 69 9.3 Groundwater regulation in Jordan ................................................................................. 71 9.4 Traditional groundwater management in Jordan .......................................................... 75 10 Yemen ...........................................................................................................................76 10.1 Groundwater resources and abstraction in Yemen ....................................................... 76 10.2 The development of groundwater abstraction in Yemen .............................................. 76 10.3 Groundwater management policy and regulation in Yemen ......................................... 78 10.4 Traditional groundwater management systems and their recent evolution in Yemen . 80 10.5 Community management of groundwater resources in Yemen .................................... 81 11 Saudi Arabia ..................................................................................................................82 11.1 Groundwater resources in Saudi Arabia ......................................................................... 82 11.2 Groundwater regulation in Saudi Arabia ........................................................................ 83 11.3 Expansion of groundwater abstraction in Saudi Arabia ................................................. 84 12 Bahrain..........................................................................................................................85 12.1 Groundwater resources and abstraction in Bahrain ...................................................... 85 12.2 Groundwater regulation in Bahrain ................................................................................ 86 13 Oman ............................................................................................................................88 13.1 Groundwater resources and abstraction in Oman ......................................................... 88 13.2 Groundwater regulation in Oman .................................................................................. 88 13.3 Traditional methods for collecting groundwater in Oman ............................................. 89 14 Iran ...............................................................................................................................91 14.1 Trends in groundwater development ............................................................................. 91 14.2 Regulation of groundwater use ...................................................................................... 92 15 Turkey ...........................................................................................................................93 15.1 Current groundwater use and general management framework .................................. 93 15.2 Groundwater Irrigation Cooperatives ............................................................................ 95 Part 2. Analysis 1 Groundwater development in the Middle East and North Africa