CANALS IN LITERATURE 1760-1830 A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in English Literature in the University of Canterbury by J. L. Cornwall University of Canterbury 1990 CONTENTS PAGE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ABSTRACT 2 INTRODUCTION 3 PROMUDON 9 1. Pamphlets 9 2. Articles 18 3. Books 20 4. Novels 26 5. Ballads 33 CONSTRUCTION 42 1. Outsiders and Tourists 42 i. Navigators 42 ii. Engineers 45 iii. Construction 47 2. The Inside Voice 55 i.. Navigators 55 ii. Engineers 68 TIIBOPENlNG 71A 1. Opening Celebrations 71A 2. The Tennant Canal 78 3. The Caledonian Canal 82 THE CANALS IN USE 88 1. Outside Views 88 i. The Canals 88 ii. Canal Travel 102 iii. Canal Workers 109 2. Canal Workers Views 113 CONCLUSION 120 APPENDIX 124 BIBLIOGRAPHY 161 I wish lo thank Reg Berry for giving me support and encouragement while I have been working on this thesis; for helping me to find the right direction to take, and for believing I could get it finished. Bruce Cochrane, as Supervisor of Graduate Studies, was also supportive and very helpful to me during my time as a graduate student. My work in this area has been helped along by the research done by Anthony Burton, Jon Raven, and Roy Palmer, whose books I have frequently referred to. I am also grateful to Martha Vicinus, who sent me a copy of one ballad which was very useful. Derrick Ward, who sadly died earlier this year, did research for me in England, for which I am grateful. Most of all, I appreciate the support and love I have always had from my parents, and the belief they had in me which has enabled me to continue working and finish this thesis since the death of my father, Barry Cornwall, on July 11, 1990. This thesis is dedicated to him, with all my love. ABSTRACT 2 - This thesis presents the results of an intensive study into literature of the years 1760-1830 to discover at what times and in what ways the building of England's narrow canal system, which occurred during these years, entered the writings of people at the time. All types of literature have been studied, from broadside ballads to promotional pamphlets to novels. Not all areas provided much material, but the absences were also of value in indicating which aspects of the canals were of interest to the general public, and which had limited interest. The most common types of literature differed with each stage of the development of the canals. This study is divided into sections which reflect the stages a canal was at when it was being written about, and consequently the attitude of the writers, and the assumed attitudes of their intended audiences, reflect the interest the public had in canals at that stage. These stages are Promotion, Construction, The Opening, and The Canals in Use. This study reveals that although the development of the canal system was a major factor in producing England's Industrial Revolution, surprisingly little notice was talce~ of it. The main group to be interested was the speculators, who invested their money and hoped to malce a good profit; there were also some who saw the possibilities of canals and believed in them for their own sake, however most of the general public seemingly neither knew nor cared about artificial waterways. This is likely to be largely due to the class structure of England at the time; canals had strong connections with the working class and so were not popular with the nobility and upper-middle classes, who were the more literate members of society. INTRODUCTION 3 Any major event in modern society is inevitably seen and written about by a number of people. The literature (here defined as covering all forms of writing other than the purely technical) that is produced around an occurrence reflects and creates public interest in the subject. Thus we see reports of events in newspapers and magazines, we mention them in our letters to friends, people write books about them, and so on. The same happens with new inventions such as modern space craft or jet planes, the space shuttles or Concorde, for instance. These get advance publicity so that public interest will be aroused before they actually appear. Later the interest is fed by those who experience these new innovations and who write of their experiences, to friends, or for newspapers or magazines. Accidents, such as that which occurred with the Challenger, generate even more interest and all details are avidly sought after, and provided. Such events are given greater immediacy through the visual media; television feeds us information that we may not bother to read for ourselves. Even without television, however, news of these occurrences would travel, through the written word (the print media and also personal letters), because people want to know of such things, want to read about them and talk about them. After a time interest in such events dies down. If the event which aroused interest is of a long-term nature, i.e., the invention and development of Concorde, then it will continue to crop up in literature but not as a focus of attention, rather it will be a means of developing setting or creating a atmosphere. It will have become a part of life for the writer, his or her characters, and the readers of the literature, something to mention in passing but not to be dwelt upon. From looking at the literature which mentions an event, it is possible to determine the interest that event hl)d for various people, and to see what sort of impact it had on their lives and the lives of others. This process of interest is present in the literature that surrounded a crucial development two hundred years ago. The years 1760 to 1830 are known, to those interested in the Industrial Revolution, or transportation, as the Canal Age. In those years thousands of miles of canals were built across England, linking place to place, inland towns to sea ports, rural areas to urban areas. The change canals brought to the countryside of England is immeasurable, nor only in terms of the impetus to economic growth which this communication network provided, but also in regard to the impact on the English landscape and the lives of those who lived there. The amount of interest in canals and their consequences, as well as the actual impact of them, can be discovered through examining various examples of the literature of the time. INTRODUCTION 4 There are a large number of different types of literature involved; some of these occurred only, or mainly, at specific times in the Canal Age, others were spread throughout the period. They are best arranged according to what aspect or part of the life of a canal they deal with, or what the attitude of the writer was and his or her intention in writing of canals, in other words, what interest the canals had for people at the time. This study divides the work into four sections which coincide with the current state of the canal written about. The seventy years are not divided into chronological sections, as an item written in the nineteenth century could belong to the first, or promotional section and, likewise, something written in the early days of the canals could belong to the later, established, period, if the writer's attitude is such that sees the canal as established. This is best illustrated by taking an hypothetical typical canal and looking at the literature that would have been associated with it. At this distance from the event, it is impossible to discover evidence of all types of literature connected with a single canal, most canals will have a selection of items from differing genres relating to them, and much of the literature, for example the ballads of the navigators, cannot be tied to any one particular canal. The first stage, and the subject of the first section of this thesis, is the Promotional period. For the early canals this could be quite a long stage but later in the Canal Age it became more of a formality as less opposition was met. Once a group of people had come together and decided that they needed a canal in their area there was a lot of paperwork to be gone through before they could actually start building. The first job was to produce a pamphlet to let the public know of their intentions, and to convince possible opponents that a canal would be for the good of all. Thi.s was likely to be countered by another pamphlet by an opposing company, which would then lead to a pamphlet war with both sides trying to convince the readers of the truth of their statements. There may also have been discreet items in publications such as the Gentleman's Magazine to announce the intention of the promoters. From quite early in the period people were writing and publishing lengthy books on the value of canals in order to promote specific projects or canal building generally. If the canal was being built later in the period, people who had already been won around to the idea of canals would mention a forthcoming project in any publications they may have been involved with. Someone might even write a poem or a ballad to celebrate the plan and the good it would do to the country. And it could happen that a novelist with an earlier interest in the subject might place a passage on the importance of canals in a novel.