WestminsterResearch http://www.westminster.ac.uk/westminsterresearch Constructing Narcoterrorism as Danger: Afghanistan and the Politics of Security and Representation Aasen, D. This is an electronic version of a PhD thesis awarded by the University of Westminster. © Mr Donald Aasen, 2019. The WestminsterResearch online digital archive at the University of Westminster aims to make the research output of the University available to a wider audience. Copyright and Moral Rights remain with the authors and/or copyright owners. Whilst further distribution of specific materials from within this archive is forbidden, you may freely distribute the URL of WestminsterResearch: ((http://westminsterresearch.wmin.ac.uk/). In case of abuse or copyright appearing without permission e-mail [email protected] Constructing Narcoterrorism as Danger: Afghanistan and the Politics of Security and Representation Greg Aasen A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of Westminster for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy January 2019 1 Abstract Afghanistan has become a country synonymous with danger. Discourses of narcotics, terrorism, and narcoterrorism have come to define the country and the current conflict. However, despite the prevalence of these dangers globally, they are seldom treated as political representations. This project theorizes danger as a political representation by deconstructing and problematizing contemporary discourses of (narco)terrorism in Afghanistan. Despite the globalisation of these two discourses of danger, (narco)terrorism remains largely under-theorised, with the focus placed on how to overcome this problem rather than critically analysing it as a representation. The argument being made here is that (narco)terrorism is not some ‘new’ existential danger, but rather reflects the hegemonic and counterhegemonic use of danger to establish authority over the collective identity. Using the case study of Afghanistan, this project critically analyses representations of danger emerging from the Afghan government and the Taliban. While many studies have looked at terrorism and narcotics as security concerns, there has not been a critical analysis of these two dangers as a political representation in the Afghan context. Therefore, this study will be of great benefit to scholars and practitioners of security as it presents a unique look on how identity is shaped through representations of danger in Afghanistan. Through applying Critical Discourse Analysis to contemporary representations in Afghanistan, this study provides new insight into the aims and objectives of both the Government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan and the Taliban. 2 Table of Contents Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... 5 Author’s Declaration ......................................................................................................... 6 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 7 Research Questions ....................................................................................................... 9 Research Focus ............................................................................................................ 10 Chapter Structure ......................................................................................................... 12 Chapter I: Theoretical Framework and Methodology ..................................................... 16 Danger as a Discourse ................................................................................................. 18 Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................... 29 Methods and Data Set - Critical Discourse Analysis .................................................. 38 Using Critical Discourse Analysis ........................................................................... 43 Who ‘speaks’ security? ............................................................................................ 44 Choice of Texts ........................................................................................................ 46 Limitations ............................................................................................................... 50 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 51 Chapter II: Danger, (Narco)Terrorism, and Afghanistan ................................................ 53 Section I: Critical Approaches to Insecurity and Danger ............................................ 54 What is danger? ....................................................................................................... 55 How is danger constructed? ..................................................................................... 59 Why is danger represented? ..................................................................................... 63 Section II: (Narco)Terrorism Literature ...................................................................... 71 Mainstream Approaches to Terrorism and Narcoterrorism ..................................... 71 Critical Terrorism Studies ........................................................................................ 74 Critical Approaches to Drugs .................................................................................. 79 Section III: The Politics of (In)Security in Afghanistan ............................................. 84 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 93 Chapter III: Tracing the Discourses of (Narco)terrorism ................................................ 95 Terrorism, Hegemony and Identity ............................................................................. 97 Historical Representations of Terrorism ................................................................... 104 The Political Value of the Terrorist Label ................................................................. 109 Narcotics and Other Societal Plagues........................................................................ 116 Constructing Narcotics as Danger ............................................................................. 120 3 Conflation and the Emergence of Narcoterror .......................................................... 124 The Nexus .............................................................................................................. 128 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 131 Chapter IV – Securing Identity: Hegemonic Representations of (Narco)Terrorism .... 133 Data and Methods ...................................................................................................... 134 Section I - Violent Politics: The Afghan Political Context ....................................... 137 Section II: Building the Discourse: (Narco)Terror in Afghanistan ........................... 141 Section III: Institutional Control and Representations of Danger ............................. 153 International Discourse .......................................................................................... 166 Section IV: Establishing the Endangered Identity .................................................... 172 Islam....................................................................................................................... 174 Nation of Victims................................................................................................... 178 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 181 Chapter V – Counterhegemonic Voices: The Taliban’s (re)Representations of Danger ....................................................................................................................................... 183 Counterhegemonic Discourse .................................................................................... 185 Painting the Other as Danger: Commonalities in Hegemonic and Counterhegemonic Representations of Danger ........................................................................................ 198 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 213 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 215 Bibliography .................................................................................................................. 219 4 Acknowledgements It has been quite a journey and I will never forget the many people who have helped me along the way. I’ve spent months thinking about what I would write and now that it has come time, there are no words that fully express my gratitude. I am forever indebted to my supervisory team: Prof. Dibyesh Anand and Dr. Thomas Moore. Without their help and guidance, I would never have made it this far. Thank you Dibyesh for your encouraging words, your constant questioning, and your emotional support. I hope with all my heart to continue to work with you on future projects and to (finally) co-publish that article. I also want to thank the many students I’ve met over the years.