Fragmented Diversity: School Desegregation, Student Activism, and Busing in Los Angeles, 1963 - 1982 by Herbert R. Sosa A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (History) in The University of Michigan 2013 Doctoral Committee: Professor Terrence J. McDonald, Chair Professor Jeffrey E. Mirel Associate Professor Matthew D. Lassiter Associate Professor Michele Mitchell © Herbert R. Sosa 2011 Dedicated to mi abuelita Rosa Torres, Reverend William Miles, Carlos, Minerva, and Cynthia ii Acknowledgements I am grateful to many individuals and institutions that have supported me during my pursuit of a PhD in history and the completion of this dissertation. I would like to thank my dissertation chair Terrence McDonald and my dissertation committee members Jeffrey Mirel, Matthew Lassiter, and Michele Mitchell for their constant kindness and support. I especially want to thank Terrence McDonald for his enduring guidance, encouragement, and patience that helped me navigate through different stages of the PhD program. At the University of Michigan, I have been fortunate to meet several professors whose positive influence gave me the wherewithal to complete my degree. They include: Kathleen Canning, Gina Morantz-Sanchez, Geoff Eley, Penny Von Eschen, Kevin Gaines, Sueann Caulfield, Matthew Countryman, Carroll Smith-Rosenberg (and Alvia), Ginang Weller, Sarita See, Chun-shu Chang, and Sonya Rose. I express my gratitude to the entire award-winning History Department staff at the University of Michigan, specially Lorna Altstetter, Sheila Coley, Kathleen King, and Diana Denney, and the School of Literature, Sciences, and Arts Dean’s Office staff, particularly Sue Marsh and Kayla Niemann. From California State University, Los Angeles, I owe special thanks to Cheryl Koos and Andrew Frank for encouraging me to pursue a graduate career in history at the University of Michigan. I also want to thank Stanley Burstein, Daniel Crecelius, Enrique Ochoa, Ping Yao, Terry Kandal, and Pamela Porter. Generous fellowships, programs, and institutions made my graduate career, and research and writing possible. I thank the History Department and the Rackham Graduate School at the University of Michigan, and the Spencer Foundation for their financial support. I want to thank the California State University for conferring the Sally Casanova Pre-Doctoral Fellowship to me. The fellowship gave me the financial assistance that I needed to apply to graduate school. I am grateful to the Los Angeles Board Secretariat, Los Angeles Unified School District for granting me full access to the entire school desegregation archive and for permitting me to spend a year researching there. Specifically, I would like to thank Rachel Tucker, Jefferson Crain, Leila iii Acevedo, Sandra Torigoe, Brenda Jones, Maricela Garcia, Paz, Perry, Elvia, and Armen. I owe many thanks to Robert G. Marshall and his staff at the California State University, Northridge, Oviatt Library, Special Collections; Jane Carpenter, Robert Montoya, Mauricio, Melissa and the rest of the staff at the University of California at Los Angeles, Charles E. Young Research Library Department of Special Collections; and Michele Welsing and the rest of the staff at The Southern California Library (also known as the Southern California Library for Social Studies and Research). Without the love of my late grandmother Rosa Torres none of my academic pursuits would have been possible. I am eternally indebted to her and I miss her very much. I thank my godfather Alejandro for instilling in me an intellectual curiosity by “bribing” me with toy soldiers when I received good grades in kindergarten. My brother Carlos always cheered me on to finish my degree. I also thank my sister-in-law Lidyann, my niece Aracelli, nephew Tony, and Minerva for their zaniness that brought me needed moments of levity. I am grateful to my cousin Karla Ruano, Tio Paco, Tia Sonia, Katherine, Jose Eduardo, Boris, and Luis for their moral support. I was very fortunate to make some enduring friendships with history colleagues, including Cynthia Marasigan, Jeff Kaja, Kishi Animashaun-Ducre, and Will Redfern. Although I have been a fan of Michigan Football since the early 1980s, college football Saturdays would not have been the same without Tyler Cornelius, Jonathan Eacott, Allison Abra, and Angela Dowdell. I was also fortunate to have befriended Alex Navarro, Tina DeLisle, Andrew Highsmith, and Tamar Carroll at different stages of my graduate career at Michigan. I want to give special thanks to friends outside of academic circles whose ideas and perspectives about life enriched my own. My friend the late Reverend Bill Miles was a friend indeed. Kind and giving to a fault and with an “un-reverend” sense of humor, Bill and I sparred over life’s meaning, humanity and our place in it, religiosity, morality, politics, and human relations. Although we concurred on many issues, we would never admit it and found ways to argue in jest. I thank Rosita M. for supporting my decision to return to college after a prolonged break. Kavin Chung and Prithvirajsingh Varma are like brothers to me and their friendships helped me balance my academic life with my non-academic life. I offer thanks to Trina Stoneham, a good friend and UM graduate pursuing a career in medicine. I was fortunate to iv make other friends during my graduate career, including Mike Kagawa, Baltazar Peña, Kenny M., J. LaRue, and J. Briegel. I am indebted to Mr. George Moran, Ms. Betty Kitzes, Ms. Phyllis Siegel, Ms. Dotson, Mr. R. Zagami, L. Myron, and L. Mentz for their kindness and guidance during times when attending college was the least of my concerns. I express my gratitude to Barry J., Professor Daniel Ramirez, Daniel, and Rose for helping me gain a better understanding of my academic career and myself. I also want to express my gratitude to my friends from elementary and middle school for their support, particularly Juan Garcia and Mario Osorio. Thank you to my good friend Marla Conti who cheered on my pursuit of a graduate degree. I want to give thanks to Tama Phelps at CCRB for offering workout tips. I thank Missy, Charlie, and the staff at Sadako Japanese Restaurant for being good hosts. I spent many months at Starbucks-South U. during the editing stage of my dissertation. I want to thank the store’s manager Lisa and her amazing staff that included Annette Brown, Stacey Barry, Justin H., James Macey, Joel W., Ryan, and Nick. I am also thankful to Cody, Chris, and Crista who worked at other Starbucks locations, and Lance at Pinball Pete’s for their friendly and easy-going disposition. Lastly, I want to thank Cynthia again for being part of my graduate school journey. Thank you for supporting me during difficult times, for enriching moments of happiness, and for encouraging me to complete a PhD. v Table of Contents Dedication........................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements............................................................................................................ iii List of Figures.................................................................................................................. viii List of Maps ....................................................................................................................... ix List of Charts........................................................................................................................x List of Abbreviations ......................................................................................................... xi Abstract............................................................................................................................ xiv Introduction: Fragmented Diversity.....................................................................................1 Chapter 1: Challenging Boundaries and Competing Discourses: The Origins of Mary Crawford v. Los Angeles City Board of Education, School Segregation, and the Civil Rights Movement in Los Angeles......................................................................................26 Chapter 2: Diverse Waves of Protest: Black and Brown Student Activism Transforms the Integration Debate......................................................................................................110 Chapter 3: “Their own separate destinies”: Delineating Racial and Ethnic Loyalties during Crawford ..............................................................................................................183 Chapter 4: A Quandary of Multidimensional Proportions: LACBE’s Community Advisory Committee on Student Integration, Shifting Board Dynamics, and Community Advisory Councils ......................................................................................257 Chapter 5: An Emergent Integration Plan: LACBE, Judge Egly, and Competing Interests Spar over the Details of Integration Strategies..................................................332 Chapter 6: A Limited Integration Plan in the Midst of Hypersegregation and Overcrowding in Minority Schools.......................................................................422 Chapter 7: Searching for Compromise in a Diverse and Segregated City.......................529 vi Conclusion .......................................................................................................................608 Bibliography ....................................................................................................................629