Notes Introduction 1. Hugh Seton-Watson, Nations and States (London, 1982), 5. 2. Ibid., 3. 3. Tom Nairn, The Break-up of Britain (London, 1977), 41–2. 4. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflection on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1983), 15. 5. Ibid., 20. 6. Ibid. 7. Miroslav Hroch, ‘From National Movement to the Fully Formed Nation,’ New Left Review 198 (March/April 1993), 3–20. 8. Ibid., 6–7. 9. Ibid., 18. 10. Seton-Watson, Nations and States, 147–8. 11. Anderson, Imagined Communities, 127. 12. Ibid., 86. 13. Ibid., 102. 14. In the case of Iran, the Belgian constitution was the model for the Iranian constitution with two major adaptations to suit the country’s conditions. There were numerous references to religion and the importance of religious leaders. The constitution also made a point of recognizing the existence of the provincial councils. Ervand Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions (Princeton, NJ, 1982), 90. 15. Peter Laslett, ‘Face-to-Face Society,’ in P. Laslett (ed.), Philosophy, Politics and Society (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1967), 157–84. 16. Anderson, Imagined Communities, 122. 17. Arjun Appadurai, ‘Introduction, Commodities and the Politics of Value,’ in A. Appadurai (ed.), The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspec- tive (Cambridge, 1986), 3–63. 18. Ibid., 9. 19. Luca Anderlini and Hamid Sabourian, ‘Some Notes on the Economics of Barter, Money and Credit,’ in Caroline Humphrey and Stephen Hugh- Jones (eds), Barter, Exchange and Value (Cambridge, 1992), 75–106. 20. Ibid., 89. 21. The principal issue in the rise of Kurdish national awareness is the erosion in the fabric of the Kurdish ‘face-to-face’ society. The particular form this assumed in Kurdistan is of a secondary importance. Although I have not come across contrary evidence suggesting that the tribal structure in Iranian Kurdistan had not been of a nomadic type prior to the twentieth century, the notion of the ‘face-to-face’ society, and the factors which account for its erosion, employed in this study are broad enough to encompass both nomadic and settled types of tribal communities. 227 228 Notes 22. Teodor Shanin, The Awkward Class: Political Sociology of Peasantry in a De- veloping Society: Russia, 1910–1925 (London, 1972). 23. E. J. Hobsbawm, Bandits (London, 1969), ch. 2, 30–40. 24. See P. Laslett, The World We Have Lost (New York, 1973). Laslett argues that in pre-industrial rural England there were social distinctions, but not class divisions, hence his notion of ‘one-class society.’ 25. On this notion, see the conclusion of this work. Chapter 1 Introduction to the Kurds and Kurdistan 1. Hassan Arfa, The Kurds (London, 1966), 2. 2. This does not, generally, include the official government definitions, since there have always been attempts to deny or undermine the presence of a Kurdish identity by the governments in Iran, Turkey, and Iraq. 3. Gerald Chaliand (ed.), People without a Country (London, 1980), 4. 4. David McDowall, The Kurds: A Nation Denied (London, 1992), 8. 5. For the translation of the KDPI autonomous plan, see Charles MacDonald, ‘The Kurdish Question in the 1980s,’ in M. Esman and I. Robinovich (eds), Ethnicity, Pluralism, and the State in the Middle East (Ithaca, NY, 1988), 242. 6. An example of lack of harmony and peaceful coexistence between Kurds and their neighbors goes back to 1915 when some Kurds helped the Otto- man army to kill and expel Armenians from the Kurdish area. Years later, Armenian nationalists, having not forgotten this cooperation with geno- cide, threatened the Kurds with revenge. 7. Abdul Rahman Ghassemlou, Kurdistan and the Kurds (London, 1965), 14. 8. Ibid., 85. 9. For the text of the treaty, see Kendal, ‘The Kurds under the Ottoman Empire,’ in Chaliand, People without a Country, 42–3. 10. For more about Shaikh Said’s revolt see Robert Olson, The Emergence of Kurdish Nationalism 1800–1925 (Austin, TX, 1991). 11. Martin Van Bruinessen, Agha, Shaikh and State (London, 1992), 54. 12. Ibid., 254. 13. Arfa, The Kurds, 35. 14. David McDowall, The Kurds, the Minority Rights Group Report, No. 23 (London, 1989), 18. 15. Ghassemlou, Kurdistan and the Kurds, 63. 16. The treaty was implemented in 1932. 17. Ismet Sheriff Vanly, ‘Kurdistan in Iraq,’ in Chaliand, People without a Coun- try, 163. 18. 1979 National Census. 19. The Plan and Budget Organization of Iran, 1986. 20. These fugures are from the last national census published by the Plan and Budget Organization of Iran, 2000 21. Van Bruinessen, Agha, Shaikh and State, 105. 22. William Eagleton, The Kurdish Republic (London, 1963), 16–17. 23. For a background to the Kurdish tribes in Iran, I have used the information in the Public Record Office documents of 1944 (FO/371/40178, October Notes 229 1944). It should be mentioned that all these tribes exist to this day. How- ever, for further study of Iranian tribes, including Kurdish tribes, see Iraj Afshar Sistani, Ilha, Chadurnishinan, va Tavayif-i A’shayeri-i Iran (Tribes, Tent-dwellers and Nomads of Iran) (Tehran, 1987). 24. FO/371/40178, October 1944. 25. FO/371/35093, June 1943, and FO/371/40178, October 1944. 26. Ghassemlou, ‘Kurdistan in Iran,’ in Chaliand, People without a Country, 113. 27. For information on this period, see Ghassemlou, Kurdistan and the Kurds, chs IV and V. 28. Mostafa Azkia, Khushnishinan-i Kurdistan (Landless Peasants of Kurdistan) (Tehran University, 1976), 59. 29. Ibid., 61. 30. Ibid., 63. 31. Tehran University, Barisi-i Natayj-i Islahat-i Arzi dar Haft Mantaqi (Study of the Effects of Land Reform in Seven Regions) (The Institute of Social Study and Research, Tehran University, 1969), 194. 32. Azkia, Khushnishinan-i Kurdistan, 76. 33. The Plan and Budget Organization, Moqadimeh-i bar Shenakht-i Masayl-i Iqtesad-i va Ijtima¢-i Jama¢i-i A¢shayer-i Kurdistan (Introduction to the Eco- nomic and Social Problems of the Tribal Society of Kurdistan) (The Plan and Budget Organization, 1979). 34. See Mahabad in Geographical Dictionary of Iran, Vol. 4 (Tehran, 1953). 35. McDowall, The Kurds, 65. 36. FO/371/40219, April 1944. 37. Olson, The Emergence of Kurdish Nationalism, 1–7. 38. Ibid., 2. 39. Ervand Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions (Princeton, NJ, 1982), 50– 101. 40. Ibid., 120. 41. Ibid. 42. A. Lambton, Landlord and Peasant in Persia (London, 1953), 285. 43. Akbar Aghajanian, ‘Ethnic Inequality in Iran: An Overview,’ International Journal of Middle East Studies, 15 (1983), 211–25. 44. Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions, 137. 45. Ibid., 11. 46. Ghassemlou, Kurdistan and the Kurds, 109. Chapter 2 The Political Economy of Kurdish Tribalism 1. T. Firuzan, ‘Darbariy-i Tarkib va Sazman-i Ilat va ’Ashayer-i Iran’ (The Com- position and Organization of Iranian Nomads and Tribes), in Ilat va ’Ashayer (Tribes and Nomads) (Tehran, 1983), 14–16. 2. Amir Hushang Kishavarz, ‘Nezam-i Iqtesad-i va Sakht-i Ijtima‘-i dar ’Ashayer-i Iran’ (Social and Economic Structure of Iranian tribes), in Chas- hmandaz, 3 (Autumn 1987), 40. 3. John Iliffe, A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge, 1979), 323. 4. Ibid., 324. 5. Andrew Roberts, A History of Zambia (London, 1976), 65. 230 Notes 6. Richard Tapper (ed.), The Conflict of Tribe and State in Iran and Afghanistan (London, 1983), 9. 7. Martin Van Bruinessen, Agha, Shaikh and State (London, 1992), 51. 8. Abdul Rahman Ghassemlou, Kurdistan and the Kurds (London, 1965), 106. 9. Ibid., 107. 10. Kishavarz, ‘Nezam-i Iqtesad-i va . ’, 45–6. 11. A. Lambton, Landlord and Peasant in Persia (London, 1953), 285. 12. Camilla Toulmin, Economic Behaviour Among Livestock-Keeping People, Development Studies Occasional Paper No. 25 (University of East Anglia, 1983), 5. 13. Ibid. 14. Ibid., 19. 15. Ibid., 26. 16. Ibid., 31, 41–3. 17. Ibid., 62. 18. Ibid., 5, 44. 19. Ibid., 44. 20. Fredrik Barth, Nomads of South Persia (Oslo, 1961), 110. 21. Toulmin, Economic Behaviour, 45. 22. Barth, Nomads of South Persia, 108. 23. Ibid., 3. 24. Toulmin, Economic Behaviour, 58. 25. Cows are not popular among the tribes in Kurdistan for they are generally not suitable for long journeys through mountains where often livestock have to pass through narrow passages in the rock. 26. Goats and kids are more tolerant of changes in temperature, long journeys, and shortages of food and water. There is some vegetation which can be consumed by goats but which is fatal for sheep. 27. Kishavarz, ‘Nezam-i Iqtesad-i va Sakht-i Ijtima‘-i dar ‘Ashayer-i Iran’, 49–50. 28. Ghassemlou, Kurdistan and the Kurds, 109. 29. Ibid., 107. 30. Ibid., 106. 31. Lambton, Landlord and Peasant, 269. 32. Ghassemlou, Kurdistan and the Kurds, 108. 33. J’afar Furugh, ‘Ashayer va Damdari (Tribes and Herding) (Tehran, 1976), 15. The exact date of the research is not very clear from the report; however, from the content of the report one assumes that the date of the research was not much prior to the publication date. 34. The Plan and Budget Organization, Moqadimeh-i bar Shenakht-i Masail-i Iqtesad-i va Ijtima-i Jamai-i ’Ashayer-i Kurdistan (Introduction to the Eco- nomic and Social Problems of Tribal Society of Kurdistan), (The Plan and Budget Organization, Tehran, 1979), 22. 35. Afshar-Naderi, Khanivade va Tuse‘eh-i ‘Ashayer (Family and Development among Tribes) (Tehran University, 1976), 13. 36. Ghassemlou, Kurdistan and the Kurds, 90. 37. Ibid., 90. 38. Azkia, Khushnishinan-i Kurdistan, 59. 39. The Plan and Budget Organization of the Province of Kurdistan, The Statis- tics Report for Kurdistan 1985,5. Notes 231 Chapter 3 Nationalism or Tribalism? Simko’s Revolt 1. Sharif Mardin, Religious and Social Change in Modern Turkey: The Case of Bediuzzaman Said Nuri (New York, 1989), 34.