The submitted manuscript has been created by Argonne National Laboratory, a U.S. Department of Energy laboratory managed by UChicago Argonne, LLC, under Contract No. DE-AC02-06CH11357. The U.S. Government retains for itself, and others acting on its behalf, a paid-up, nonexclusive, irrevocable worldwide license in said article to reproduce, prepare derivative works, distribute copies to the public, and perform publicly and display publicly, by or on behalf of the Government Background on Plug-in Electric Vehicles Danilo J. Santini Senior Economist Center for Transportation Research Argonne National Laboratory The American Lung Association Electric Vehicle Forum May 23rd Palos Hills IL Preparation of this presentation was sponsored by Clean Cities and the Vehicle Technologies Program, Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy, U.S. Department of Energy. Topics of the Presentation . Historical context . Distinguishing among three major kinds of plug-in electric cars . Operations and infrastructure . What are the motivators for development and sales of plug-in electric vehicles? The first electric vehicles (EVs) . First crude electric made between 1832 & 1839 . More practical & successful vehicles made around 1842 . Better battery storage invented in 1865 with further improvements in 1881 Jay Leno’s Baker EV 1900s Markets Were: Where Garages Were for Personal Vehicles; Slow MPH Urban Delivery . (Midwestern) cities with lower density had higher EV car share – houses, more new construction . New York was the first city to lose all personal use EVs (multifamily, long commutes, hills) . New York City was the most successful location for truck fleet EVs by far (slow average speed, many customers, large fleets, long hours, used most available range or even more via battery swapping) . Taxi fleets were also tried (slow average speed, high value for clean and quiet) . Increasing power and speed of gasoline killed the EV. Hybrid Electric Vehicles have been around for years Hybrids have been around for 100+ years, and plugged in. Lohner-Porsche (Vienna),1899 1916 Woods Gas-Electric Hybrid Ferdinand Porsche, hub motors 14 hp, 1 liter engine, 48v, $2650 5 Affordable* Neck Bending Take-Off Acceleration and Speed for Interstate Driving Revived Car EV Interest. (Efficient Quiet, Clean Operation has Always Been a Plus, Short Range and Cost Were Always Problems) * To well-off enthusiasts Lithium Ion Batteries Allowed a New Manufacturer, Tesla, to Actually See What Some Customers Would Pay . 1990s, Nickel Metal Hydride Battery . 6.5 sec 0-50 mph (yes, 50!) . 80 mph top speed . GM made it available only for lease, not purchase . 2008, Lithium Ion Battery based on consumer cells . 3.7-3.9 sec 0-60 (yes, 60!) . 125 mph top speed . $109,000+ There are Unique Capabilities and Charging Needs for Each Plug-in Car Type – Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) • Varying electric range – battery 5-10 kWh • Blended mode operation on highways, hard acceleration • Charge power presently 1.4 - 3.3 kW – Extended Range Electric Vehicle (EREV) • Increased electric range – medium battery 10-20 kWh energy • Nearly exclusively electric operation in metro areas • Charge power presently 1.4 to 3.3 kW – Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) • All electric range – large battery >20kWh energy • Exclusively electric operation • Charge power presently 3.3 kW to 50 kW – “Super” Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) • All electric range – large battery 85 kWh energy • Charge power 10 or 20kW; DC Fast, 35 kW Annual Fuel Cost Can Be More Than $1000 Less For EVs vs. Conventional Gasoline Nissan Leaf EV Ford Focus EV Mitsubishi MiEV Chevrolet Volt EREV Toyota Prius Electricity Gasoline Nissan Versa Ford Focus Chevrolet Cruze Toyota Corrola $- $1,000 $2,000 $3,000 Fuel Economy.gov Annual Fuel Cost Estimate HEVs Have Proven to Require Less Maintenance than Conventional Vehicles. Plug-in Vehicles are Also Anticipated to Require Less Maintenance. • HEVs and PHEVs require slightly less maintenance than conventional vehicles • Battery warranties are for 8 years or more • EVs should also require less maintenance than conventional vehicles • Battery, motor, and associated electronics require no regular maintenance, or very long intervals • No fluids to change, except brake fluid (one battery flush for Focus BEV however) • Regenerative braking reduces break wear • Fewer moving parts than a conventional vehicle Temperature Extremes Affect Electric Drive Energy Consumption More Than Gasoline Vehicles Advanced Powertrain Research Facility 2012 Electric Vehicle +101% +25% +92% +2% +42% +27% +21% +5% Note: Energy consumption does not include charger efficiency 11 However, With Your Cell Phone, You Can Use Grid Electricity to Heat or Cool Your Vehicle Before Leaving. But if Parked in a Lot With No Charger Mid Afternoon … Leaf Volt Electrification Possibilities Span Most Vehicle Classes, Have Lately Been in Flux . Pure EVs BMW Mini E Ford Focus BEV Nissan Leaf Smith Edison Navistar EV Tesla Roadster Coda Think EV Mitsubishi iMiEV EVI Truck Smith Newton Smart ED Light Azure Dynamics Ford Transit Connect Heavy Extended Range Bright Automotive Azure Dynamics Azure Dynamics Step Van Refrigerator Truck Chevy Volt EREV Fisker Karma EREV Electrics Light Ford Fusion PHEV Plug In Balquon HD Truck Odyne HEV Honda Accord Bucket Truck PHEV Hybrids Toyota Prius PHEV Ford C-Max Energi PHEV Modified from: M. Simpson, Plug-in Electric Vehicle Basics, Clean Cities 2011 Summit, Indianapolis IN June 27, 2011 A Couple of Points About Commercial Trucks Nissan Leaf Peak Range vs. Hours of Service Data. Urban Delivery: Slow Speed = Many Operating Hours Cars: A Day’s Use From One Charge Unless 55 mph 14 Steady 38 mph! 12 10 8 Range/10 6 Hours to depletion 4 Hottest, Hours or Miles/10 or Hours Coldest, 14° 2 95° 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Average miles per hour Note: The “real world” high to low range ratio is 2.2 (105/47) http://green.autoblog.com/2010/06/14/nissan-pegs-leaf-range-between-47-and-138-miles-individual-resu/ EV Trucks are Medium & Light, Expensive, Only Fast Enough for Intra-Urban Use Smith Newton Zero Truck Electric Vehicles International Max Payload (100 lbs) Navistar e-Star Max Speed (mph) Transit Connect Price ($1000s) 0 60 120 180 Source: Long, M. Looking at Electric Trucks. Light and Medium Truck, May 2011 pp. 12-15. Back to Plug-in Cars Households May Have to Install a New Circuit to Have a Plug Close to the Vehicle • AC Level 1 – 120 v outlet – In most garages – Does outlet have the capacity? – Prefer dedicated outlet Level 1 at Wall Level 1 Portable Charge Equipment • AC Level 2 – 240 v special connector – Defined by SAE J1772 – Cord connected to a Level 1 or 2 at Level 2 Wall the Vehicle charging dock (EVSE) Mounted Charge Dock L1 Charge Equipment Goes With the Vehicle; L2 Is Placed at Usual Parking Spots; and L2 and DC at “Stations” Level 1 (L1) with Vehicle Level 2 (L2) on House Wall Level 1 or 2 in Parking Lot L2 & DC Fast in “Stations” We Have Recently Revised the Charging Pyramid to Illustrate Complexity of Plug-in Vehicle Charging On Behalf of Electric Utilities, EPRI is Worrying About Adding Charging Demand on Hottest Summer Days Average Peak Summer Demand Per Household (KW) Tesla (240V80A) 19.2 PEV (240V@32A) 7.7 PEV (240V@15A) 3.6 PEV (120V@12A) 1.4 SanFrancisco, CA 3.0 Feeders Hartford, CT 4.3 Dulles, VA 4.6 South Bend, IN 6.0 Springdale, AR 7.7 Source: A. Maitra (Electric Power Research Institute). Plug-In Vehicle Drive Impacts to the Grid TRB Environment and Energy Research Conference June 7-9, 2010 Due to Costs of Trenching and Rewiring, Costs Behind the Plug Can Vary Significantly. New Construction Can Be Far Less Expensive, But Most Will Involve Retrofits. Most owners will charge vehicles at home, making Level 1 and Level 2 the primary options. Workplace seems to be the next highest priority. Level 2 charging equipment now costs $1,500 to $2,500 when owners choose to install. Old dwellings with limited kW capacity could require rewiring, or investment in much more efficient appliances and/or lighting to create capacity for the PEV. Level 2 at work is generally more expensive, with longer runs to parking spots, needing trenching and paving replacement. Each of these installations requires permitting and licensed contractors. Market Drivers . Zero Emissions Vehicle Mandates . Subsidies . CAFE/GHG Regulation . Gasoline Prices Zero Emission Vehicle Mandates (ZEV) • California and the States that have adopted California emission regulations ZEV Mandates have established a Zero Emission Vehicle mandate, which requires the automotive OEMs to sell clean energy vehicles including ZEVs • Requirements are only for Large Volume Manufacturers (3 year average California sales greater than 60,000 units) ZEV target requirements Percent of California Sales Volume Year Total ZEV requirement 2009-2011 11% 0.82% 2012 - 2014 12% 0.79% 2015 - 2017 14% 3.00% 2018+ 16% TBD Illinois’ Financial Incentive May Enhance PEV Rollout Here •Driven by incentives and deployment initiatives the majority of the EV market growth will be in the West Coast in the near term – particularly in the highly incentivized markets •In the medium to long term EV deployment will likely gain momentum in the States that have adopted California emission regulations ZEV Mandates (Section 177 States) WA ME OR VT MA NY CT RI PA NJ CA MD State tax credit AZ NM incentives for Hawaii purchase of either PHEVs or EVs ($605-7500) vs. Section 177 States FL Requiring PHEVs and EVs Federal ($2500- $7500) 25 Note: Nissan’s site lists more states with at least