University of Central Florida STARS Electronic Theses and Dissertations, 2004-2019 2013 The Perception And Measurement Of Human-robot Trust Kristin Schaefer University of Central Florida Part of the Psychology Commons Find similar works at: https://stars.library.ucf.edu/etd University of Central Florida Libraries http://library.ucf.edu This Doctoral Dissertation (Open Access) is brought to you for free and open access by STARS. It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Theses and Dissertations, 2004-2019 by an authorized administrator of STARS. For more information, please contact [email protected]. STARS Citation Schaefer, Kristin, "The Perception And Measurement Of Human-robot Trust" (2013). Electronic Theses and Dissertations, 2004-2019. 2688. https://stars.library.ucf.edu/etd/2688 THE PERCEPTION AND MEASUREMENT OF HUMAN-ROBOT TRUST by KRISTIN E. SCHAEFER B. A. Susquehanna University, 2003 M. S. University of Central Florida, 2009 A dissertation submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Modeling and Simulation in the College of Sciences at the University of Central Florida Orlando, Florida Summer Term 2013 Major Professor: Peter A. Hancock © 2013 Kristin E. Schaefer ii ABSTRACT As robots penetrate further into the everyday environments, trust in these robots becomes a crucial issue. The purpose of this work was to create and validate a reliable scale that could measure changes in an individual’s trust in a robot. Assessment of current trust theory identified measurable antecedents specific to the human, the robot, and the environment. Six experiments subsumed the development of the 40 item trust scale. Scale development included the creation of a 172 item pool. Two experiments identified the robot features and perceived functional characteristics that were related to the classification of a machine as a robot for this item pool. Item pool reduction techniques and subject matter expert (SME) content validation were used to reduce the scale to 40 items. The two final experiments were then conducted to validate the scale. The finalized 40 item pre-post interaction trust scale was designed to measure trust perceptions specific to HRI. The scale measured trust on a 0-100% rating scale and provides a percentage trust score. A 14 item sub-scale of this final version of the test recommended by SMEs may be sufficient for some HRI tasks, and the implications of this proposition were discussed. iii This dissertation is dedicated to my advisor and mentor, Dr. Peter A. Hancock. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Over the last few years, there are a number of other people who provided both professional and personal support throughout this process. First and foremost, I would like to thank my advisor and committee chair, Dr. Peter A. Hancock. There are not enough words to thank you for helping me to become the researcher I am today. It has truly been a joy and honor to work with you. Although I will miss our early morning coffee breaks, I look forward to future endeavors that may come our way. Secondly, I would like to thank my committee members, Drs. John D. Lee, Florian Jentsch, Peter Kincaid, Deborah R. Billings, and Lauren Reinerman. Each of you encouraged me to strive for excellence every day. Thank you for your time, support, and guidance that helped me to develop a sound theory, strong methodology, and statistical clarity that will benefit the HRI community. I would also like to acknowledge a number of professional colleagues who provided support for this research. I would first like to thank the U. S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL) and the support of many colleagues involved with the Robotics Collaborative Technical Alliance (RCTA). In addition, a special thank you to Drs. Jessie Y. C. Chen and Susan Hill for their unending support, encouragement, and guidance in furthering the field of human-robot trust. I would also like to thank Ralph Brewer, ARL, and Dave Wagner, GDRS, for their guidance and recommendations with the RIVET simulation development. In addition, there were eleven important people who without them I could not have completed my research. I would like to extend a special thank you to my subject matter experts: Ralph Brewer, Jessie Chen, A. William v Evans, Jason Gregory, Chad Kessens, Stephanie Merritt, Philip Osteen, Jason Owens, Aaron Steinfield, and two additional SMEs who prefer to remain anonymous. A very special thank you is also required for my colleagues and friends, Gabriella Hancock, Ryan Yordon, Valerie Willis, and Tracy Sanders for taking the time to read draft after draft of my work and providing critical feedback. I am also so proud of my undergraduate students, Angela Bardwell-Owens, Jackie Cook, and Jacob Whitney, who took this opportunity to strive for excellence themselves. Thank you for taking the lead on our conference presentations this last year. I am so proud of all your accomplishments and honored to have had the opportunity to work with each of you. I would especially like to thank my family and friends for their never ending encouragement. To my parents, Fred and Jane Schaefer, thank you for providing me the courage to pursue my dreams and the support to continue through to the end. A very special thank you is needed for my mom for her grammatical genius while editing multiple drafts of my work. Finally, a deep, heart-felt thank you to Steven Rodman and David Parks for countless hours of listening to me talk through my thoughts, all your insights into partnership roles and tactics within the military domain, and especially for making me take a break every once in a while. To each of you, I cannot express the depths of my gratitude enough. With that said, I will leave you with the words of the Robot from Lost in Space, “my micro mechanism thanks you, my computer tapes thank you, and I thank you.” vi The research reported in this document was performed in connection with Contract Number W911NF-10-2-0016 with the U. S. Army Research Laboratory. The views and conclusions contained in this document are those of the author and should not be interpreted as presenting the official policies or position, either expressed or implied, of the U. S. Army Research Laboratory, or the U. S. Government unless so designated by other authorized documents. Citation of manufacturer’s or trade names does not constitute an official endorsement or approval of the use thereof. The U. S. Government is authorized to reproduce and distribute reprints for Government purposes notwithstanding any copyright notation herein. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... xix LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................................... xxiii LIST OF ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................ xxvii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 1 Robots: A Step toward Definition.............................................................................................. 2 Fictional media........................................................................................................................ 4 The history of robotics. ........................................................................................................... 6 Domain of use. ........................................................................................................................ 8 Human-Robot Interaction ..................................................................................................... 10 Rationale for this Dissertation .................................................................................................. 13 Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................................... 15 Overall Significance of this Dissertation .................................................................................. 16 Assumptions and Limitations ................................................................................................... 16 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE ........................................................................ 18 Trust Definitions ....................................................................................................................... 19 The Triadic Model of Trust....................................................................................................... 21 Robot-related trust factors..................................................................................................... 24 viii Robot Capabilities .............................................................................................................. 25 Robot features. ................................................................................................................... 26 Human-related trust factors................................................................................................... 28 Human traits ....................................................................................................................... 29 Human states. ..................................................................................................................... 30 Environment-related trust factors. .......................................................................................