A grammar of Sanzhi Dargwa Diana Forker language Languages of the Caucasus 2 science press Languages of the Caucasus Editors: Diana Forker (Universität Jena), Nina Dobrushina (National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow), Timur Maisak (Institute of Linguistics at the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow), Oleg Belyaev (Lomonosov Moscow State University). In this series: 1. Daniel, Michael, Nina Dobrushina & Dmitry Ganenkov (eds.). The Mehweb language: Essays on phonology, morphology and syntax. 2. Forker, Diana. A grammar of Sanzhi Dargwa. A grammar of Sanzhi Dargwa Diana Forker language science press Forker, Diana. 2020. A grammar of Sanzhi Dargwa (Languages of the Caucasus 2). Berlin: Language Science Press. This title can be downloaded at: http://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/250 © 2020, Diana Forker Published under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Licence (CC BY 4.0): http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ISBN: 978-3-96110-196-2 (Digital) 978-3-96110-197-9 (Hardcover) DOI:10.5281/zenodo.3339225 Source code available from www.github.com/langsci/250 Collaborative reading: paperhive.org/documents/remote?type=langsci&id=250 Cover and concept of design: Ulrike Harbort Typesetting: Diana Forker, Felix Anker, Felix Kopecky Proofreading: Ahmet Bilal Özdemir, Andrew Spencer, Aniefon Daniel, Daryl MacDonald, Felix Kopecky, Ivica Jeđud , Jeroen van de Weijer, Jezia Talavera, Laura Arnold, Laurentia Schreiber, Mykel Brinkerhoff, Jean Nitzke, Sebastian Nordhoff, Sune Gregersen, Tom Bossuyt, Alena Witzlack, Yvonne Treis Fonts: Libertinus, Arimo, DejaVu Sans Mono Typesetting software:Ǝ X LATEX Language Science Press Unter den Linden 6 10099 Berlin, Germany langsci-press.org Storage and cataloguing done by FU Berlin Contents Acknowledgments xi Spelling conventions xiii Glosses and other abbreviations xv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 The Sanzhi community and the Sanzhi language .............. 1 1.2 The sociolinguistic situation of Sanzhi .................... 4 1.3 Genealogical affiliation ............................ 7 1.4 Dargwa languages and the problem of the “Dargwa ethnicity” ...... 7 1.5 Typological overview ............................. 11 1.6 Literature on Dargwa languages, Dargwa people, and previous works on Sanzhi ..................................... 11 1.7 Documenting and describing Sanzhi Dargwa ................ 12 I Phonology 17 2 Phonology 19 2.1 Consonant inventory ............................. 19 2.2 Vowel inventory ................................ 23 2.3 Syllable and word structure .......................... 24 2.4 Pharyngealization ............................... 26 2.5 Word stress ................................... 30 2.6 Phonological and morphophonological alternations ............ 30 2.6.1 Vowel deletion (vowel syncope) ................... 30 2.6.2 Alternations in the form of enclitics/suffixes ............ 31 2.6.3 Glide insertion ............................ 32 2.6.4 Glottal stop insertion ......................... 32 2.6.5 Sequences of identical vowels .................... 33 2.6.6 Other general processes affecting vowels: Pharyngealization and formation of diphthongs ....................... 34 2.6.7 Vowel mutation (apophony) ..................... 35 2.6.8 Assimilation .............................. 37 2.6.9 Palatalization ............................. 37 2.6.10 Labialization and delabialization .................. 38 2.6.11 Gemination and degemination .................... 39 Contents II Nominal categegories 41 3 Nouns 43 3.1 Gender ..................................... 43 3.2 Number ..................................... 44 3.2.1 Frequent and productive plural suffixes ............... 45 3.2.2 Modestly frequent plural suffixes .................. 48 3.2.3 Morphophonological rules and other restrictions ......... 50 3.2.4 The associative plural ........................ 51 3.3 Gender–number mismatches and exceptions ................ 51 3.4 Case ....................................... 54 3.4.1 Functions of grammatical cases ................... 56 3.4.2 Functions of semantic cases ..................... 63 3.5 Derivation of nouns .............................. 77 3.5.1 Agent nouns with -či ......................... 77 3.5.2 Agent nouns with and -kar, -q’aˁ, and -uˁq’ ............ 78 3.5.3 Abstract nouns with -dex ...................... 78 3.5.4 Action nouns/event nouns and tools with -ala ........... 80 3.5.5 Action and event nouns with -utːi and -a .............. 81 3.5.6 Other derived nouns ......................... 82 3.6 Reduplication and compounding ....................... 83 3.6.1 Reduplication ............................. 83 3.6.2 N + N compounds .......................... 84 3.6.3 Other compounds ........................... 85 3.7 Phrasal compounds .............................. 86 4 Pronouns 89 4.1 Personal pronouns ............................... 89 4.2 Demonstrative pronouns and adverbials derived from them ........ 90 4.2.1 The demonstrative series in the columns: iC vs. heC vs. hiC and i(C)tːi vs. he(C)tːi vs. hi(C)tːi ..................... 92 4.2.2 Proximity, distance, and elevation .................. 97 4.2.3 Pronouns and adverbs derived from demonstrative pronouns .. 102 4.3 Reflexive pronouns .............................. 104 4.4 Reciprocal pronouns .............................. 106 4.5 Interrogative pronouns ............................ 106 4.5.1 ča ‘who’ and ce ‘what’ ........................ 107 4.5.2 Other interrogative words ...................... 108 4.5.3 Interrogative pronouns used as indefinites ............. 112 4.6 Indefinite pronouns .............................. 112 4.6.1 Specific indefinite pronouns ..................... 113 4.6.2 Non-specific indefinite pronouns .................. 114 4.6.3 Free-choice indefinite pronouns ................... 115 4.6.4 Negative indefinite pronouns .................... 116 4.7 Universal indefinites and other quantifiers ................. 119 ii Contents 5 Adjectives 121 5.1 Introduction .................................. 121 5.2 Adjectives and the cross-categorical suffixes -ce and -il .......... 123 5.3 Formation of adjectival attributes ...................... 124 5.4 Comparative constructions with adjectives ................. 127 6 Numerals 129 6.1 Cardinal numerals ............................... 129 6.2 Ordinal numerals ............................... 131 6.3 Distributive numerals ............................. 133 6.4 Group numerals ................................ 133 6.5 Multiplicative numerals ............................ 134 6.6 Collective numerals .............................. 135 6.7 Other numeral expressions and compounds involving numerals ..... 136 7 Adverbs 139 7.1 Spatial adverbs ................................. 139 7.1.1 Spatial adverbs derived from demonstrative pronouns ...... 139 7.1.2 Spatial adverbs related to postpositions ............... 143 7.1.3 Other spatial adverbs ......................... 143 7.2 Temporal adverbs ............................... 144 7.3 Manner adverbs ................................ 145 7.4 Degree adverbs ................................ 146 7.5 Formation of adverbials with the suffix -le ................. 147 8 Postpositions 149 8.1 Spatial postpositions ............................. 149 8.1.1 sala ‘in front of’ ............................ 150 8.1.2 sa ‘in front, ago’ ............................ 150 8.1.3 hila ‘behind, after’ .......................... 151 8.1.4 hitːi ‘after, behind’ .......................... 151 8.1.5 xːar(i) ‘down, at the bottom, under’ ................. 152 8.1.6 qari ‘at the top, above, on, about’ .................. 152 8.1.7 či ‘on, above’ ............................. 153 8.1.8 urkːa ‘between, among, within, in the middle’ ........... 154 8.1.9 b-i ‘in, inside’ ............................. 155 8.1.10 šːule ‘at side, next to, near’ ...................... 155 8.1.11 tːura ‘out, outside’ .......................... 156 8.2 Non-spatial postpositions ........................... 157 8.2.1 b-alli ‘together, with’ ......................... 157 8.2.2 canille ‘together, with’ ........................ 158 8.2.3 bahanne/bahandan ‘because of’ ................... 158 8.2.4 akːʷar ‘without, except, apart’ .................... 158 8.2.5 q’atːin(na) ‘for the sake of, because of’ ............... 159 8.2.6 ħaˁsible ‘according to’ ........................ 159 iii Contents 9 Predicative particles and other particles, conjunctions, and cross-categorical suffixes 161 9.1 Predicative particles .............................. 161 9.2 Conjunctions .................................. 166 9.3 Temporal enclitics ............................... 169 9.4 Discourse and modal enclitics ........................ 171 9.4.1 The additive enclitic ......................... 171 9.4.2 The enclitic =q’al ........................... 173 9.4.3 The enclitic =q’ar ........................... 175 9.4.4 The enclitic =n(u) ........................... 176 9.4.5 Other enclitics that manipulate information structure ....... 177 9.5 Pause fillers, address particles, exclamatives, and interjections ...... 179 9.6 Cross-categorical suffixes ........................... 183 9.6.1 The suffix -ce ............................. 183 9.6.2 The suffix -il ............................. 191 9.6.3 The adverbializer -le ......................... 195 10 Place names and microtoponyms 197 III Verbal morphology 203 11 General remarks on verbal morphology 205 11.1 Overview of the general morphological structure of verbs ......... 205 11.2 The structure of underived verbal stems ................... 206 11.2.1 Differences in gender