School of Education Indonesian Language Policy and the Views of Javanese Language Teachers in Yogyakarta: Implications for Action Bambang Suwarno This thesis is presented for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy of Curtin University June 2014 Declaration To the best of my knowledge and belief this thesis contains no material previously published by any other person except where due acknowledgement has been made. This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university. Signature: ____________________________ Date : ____________________________ ii Abstract Research indicates that there has been a language shift from heritage languages to the Indonesian language in Indonesia. The country’s language policy and planning (LPP) exists to manage such a shift. This study aimed to analyse the impact the Indonesian language policy and planning (ILPP) is having on the status and use of heritage languages in general and the Javanese language in particular. In addition the study sought to explore the views of Javanese language teachers in Sleman regency on the ILPP. Finally the study sought to explore the implications the research findings hold for the re-evaluation of the integrity of the existing form of the ILPP and its capacity to stem such a shift. In order to achieve these objectives, the study adopted a dynamic dual strand approach to methodology. The first strand included analysis of Indonesian language-related laws at national and provincial level. The second strand consisted of a survey of Javanese language teachers in Sleman regency, to ascertain their views of the ILPP and their preferences of domains for the Javanese language. Analysis revealed that the existing LPP might not be effective in stemming language shift or indeed congruent with the Indonesian Constitution. Derived from the data analysis, a number of models were conceived for policy revision; one was based on the teachers’ views while another was devised from language policy theory and the Indian language policy. iii Acknowledgements First of all, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to God, who I believe has given me blessing and guidance in my study. I would like to express my great gratitude to my supervisor, Professor Graham Dellar, for his expertise, compassion and patience, as well as his valuable direction and constructive guidance. I would also like to express my great gratitude to my co- supervisor, Dr Jennifer Howell, who worked with my supervisor to ensure that my thesis could attain the best possible standard. I am also indebted to Dr Chris Conlan and Dr Ian Chalmers for their earlier work with me on my study. I owe great gratitude to Dr Anna Alderson, who gave me a lot of time for discussion and helpful feedback. I would offer my great gratitude to the Chancellor and other officers of Curtin University, in general, and those of the Faculty of Humanities, School of Education, in particular, who have provided me with the opportunity to pursue my PhD education. In particular, I would like to express my great gratitude to Prof Lina Peliccione and Prof Rhonda Oliver, who have facilitated my studies, and Prof Rob Cavanagh, who has served as the Chairperson of my Thesis Committee. I also owe gratitude to other university officers, including those of the library and health and disability offices, who have attended to my special needs. With my hearing problem, communication with me must have been very demanding and thus I would like to express my great appreciation to the ladies and gentlemen for their patience. My completion of the study shall bear witness to the great attention that Curtin University devotes to those who happen to be handicapped or less endowed. I would like to express my great gratitude to the examiners who have provided valuable suggestions and comments, thereby improving my thesis. At this opportunity, I would also like to express my great gratitude to the Indonesian Government, especially the Ministry of Education, who, through the DIKTI {Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan Tinggi (The Directorate General of Higher Education)}, provided me with a scholarship during the four years, out of nearly five iv years of my study, and the officers of Universitas Bengkulu, especially the Rector and the Vice Rectors, and the Dean of FKIP (Teachers Training Faculty), who facilitated this scholarship. I am also indebted to the indirect assistance that I receive from the officers of Western Australian Department of Education, in particular those of Millen Primary School, and from the officers of New Focus Company. Great appreciation is offered to the officials from the Pusat Bahasa in Jakarta and the Balai Bahasa Yogyakarta, for their kind assistance in locating the language- related laws, and the Bappeda DIY in Yogyakarta, which issued the permit for the field work. I am also greatly indebted to the participants, the Javanese language teachers in Sleman regency, for their participation and encouragement. Without their participation, this thesis would not have achieved its completion. I am grateful to Mr. Binartoto and his field team, who provided much help in the field work. I am also grateful to my PhD student colleagues for their suggestions. Last but not least, I am grateful to my family: my wife, Woro Wuryani, and my children, Amanda, Berna, and Chelsea, who persevered and patiently endured all the tribulations during my study. May they share the great joy of the completion of this study – and I dedicate this thesis to them. May this thesis also be dedicated to the conservation of heritage languages. v Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................iii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................iv Table of Contents...............................................................................................................vi List of Tables.......................................................................................................................ix List of Figures......................................................................................................................xi List of Appendices.............................................................................................................xii List of Abbreviations .......................................................................................................xiii CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW........................................................................................................................1 1.1. Background and Context of the Study .............................................................1 1.2. The Purpose of this Study...................................................................................6 1.3. The Significance of the Study.............................................................................9 1.4. Research Questions ........................................................................................... 10 1.5. Research Design and Limitations ................................................................... 11 1.6. Definitions of Key Terms ................................................................................ 13 1.7. Organisation of the Thesis............................................................................... 14 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................................................................................. 15 2.1. Heritage languages ............................................................................................. 16 2.1.1. Heritage languages in Indonesia ................................................................................... 17 2.1.2. The Javanese language....................................................................................................18 2.2. Domains .............................................................................................................. 19 2.2.1. Public domains................................................................................................................. 20 2.2.2. Private domains................................................................................................................ 22 2.3. Language Shift .................................................................................................... 23 2.3.1. The shift from heritage languages to the national language in Indonesia............. 23 2.3.2. Heritage language protection......................................................................................... 25 2.4. The Dynamics of Language Shift ................................................................... 28 2.4.1. The unstable multilingual society in Indonesia.......................................................... 28 2.4.2. Triggers for language shift ............................................................................................. 29 2.4.3. The significance of language shift to indigenous heritage languages..................... 31 2.4.4. Averting language shift................................................................................................... 32 2.5. Language Policy and Planning (LPP)............................................................. 33 2.5.1. Defining language policy...............................................................................................