Community Participation in Protected Areas in Iran, Afghanistan, and India by Soudeh Jamshidian Ghaleh Sefidi M.Sc., Tarbiat Modares University, 2006 B.Sc., University of Tehran, 2003 Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Resource and Environmental Management Faculty of Environment © Soudeh Jamshidian Ghaleh Sefidi 2020 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY Spring 2020 Copyright in this work rests with the author. Please ensure that any reproduction or re-use is done in accordance with the relevant national copyright legislation. Approval Name: Soudeh Jamshidian Ghaleh Sefidi Degree: Doctor of Philosophy Title: Community Participation in Protected Areas in Iran, Afghanistan, and India Examining Committee: Chair: Sean Markey Professor John R. Welch Senior Supervisor Professor Murray R. Rutherford Supervisor Associate Professor Kenneth Lertzman Supervisor Professor Evelyn Pinkerton Internal Examiner Professor Benedict J. Colombi External Examiner Professor American Indian Studies University of Arizona Date Defended/Approved: April 22, 2020 ii Ethics Statement iii Abstract Community participation has become an essential part of protected area (PA) management worldwide. This thesis contributes suggestions for improving conservation effectiveness and efficiency by boosting responsible local community participation in PA management. I studied Sabzkouh PA in Iran, Shah Foladi PA in Afghanistan, and Bhitarkanika National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary in India to examine: (1) what factors affect community participation in PAs in developing countries? (2) what roles can state governments and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) play to support community participation? (3) how can application of equity criteria improve PA management? My studies, conducted between 2009 and 2018, combined document reviews with personal observations, participatory rural appraisal workshops, and open-ended interviews with local community members, state government staff, NGO representatives, and researchers. The result is a suite of recommendations and cautions for conservation practitioners seeking to improve PA management through collaborations with local communities. Respecting local communities’ knowledge, norms, and livelihoods surfaced as important components for building relationships and trust between the local communities and the state governments. Building trust and capacities is contingent on satisfying essential community needs and on transparent, fair, and collaborative PA management planning and implementation. Community based natural resources management projects can share the benefits and reduce the burdens of conservation for the communities while building the capacity of local communities to participate in PA management. Senses of equity and justice arise from deliberate collaboration and information sharing between the state government and local communities. Promoting shared governance, including the use of multi-stakeholder management committees, is an apt tool for decision-making that represents the full range of local community constituents, interests, and preferences. National and international NGOs can facilitate relationships between the state and local communities, provide funding, and fill gaps in management and technical capacities. Community participation in PA management and governance is a process that requires ongoing dialogue and trust among the stakeholders. Keywords: Protected areas; community participation; co-management; community- based natural resource management; equity; Iran; India; Afghanistan iv Dedication To my parents And to all the special and beautiful souls I met through my amazing PhD journey in Canada, Iran, Afghanistan, and India. یاﺮﺑ ﭘ رﺪ و ﺎﻣ رد ﺰﯾمﺰﻋ رد ﺎﻣ و رﺪ ﭘ یاﺮﺑ مﺎﻣﺗ ﺳھ ﺗ ﯾ م دﻣ نوﯾ ﺑﺻ و یر ، ﺷﻋق ، زا وﺧ د ﮔ ﺷذ ﺗ ﯽﮕ و ﻣﺣ ﺎ تﯾ ﻣﺷ ﺎ تﺳﺎﻣ v Acknowledgements This research is a result of several years of travels and expedition on our beautiful planet and collaboration with numerous magnificent humans around the globe. As a young researcher, I was privileged to listen to the most intimate stories of people from different backgrounds and get to carry pieces of their amazing journeys with me. I luckily got to meet farmers in far villages in coastal India, UN’s secretary general, the Dalai Lama, and women and men who survived several traumas and still got to continue their journeys with absolute and utter resilience to make a better life for everyone. I am grateful to the people of Canada, for offering the opportunity for me to live, learn, and work in their precious part of the world. I acknowledge that Simon Fraser University is on unceded Coast Salish Territory; the traditional territories of the xʷməθkwəy̓ əm (Musqueam), Skwxwú7mesh (Squamish), and Səl̓ílwətaɬ (Tsleil-Waututh) Nations. Living in the magical and beautiful Coast Salish Territory has truly been a special and eye- opening experience for me. I would like to thank my senior supervisor, Dr. John R. Welch, for his support and friendship through these long years that kept my spirit alive. I am so grateful for the special coincidence that led me to start working with you. Thanks for being an amazing advisor, mentor, and friend. I will forever cherish what you have done for me, and what you have meant for my academic and professional life, seeing my potential and allowing me to pursue a path that I enjoy. I would like to thank my supervisors Dr. Murray Rutherford and Dr. Ken Lertzman, without their comments and gracious support this manuscript would not have been possible. I would also like to thank the faculty and staff at the school of Resource and Environmental Management (REM) and the Dean of Graduate Studies who provided numerous administrative supports to provide the opportunity for me to finalize my dissertation. I would also like to extend my gratitude to Dr. Evelyn Pinkerton for her generous guidance through this research. I am grateful to my external examiner, Dr. Benedict J. Colombi, for his guidance and constructive feedback. I would like to thank Waterhouse Graduate Fellowship in Organizational Change and Innovation, and Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) for the year of funding provided to me through the “Learning from Aboriginal and Non-aboriginal vi Community Forests in British Columbia” research grant. Thanks to The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) University and Dr. Arabinda Mishra for supporting my research in India. Thank you Ernie Wijangco, Andrew Scanlon, Dr. Guido Corno, Dr. Abdul Aziz Mohibbi, Habiba Amiri, Jon C. Coe for your insights and support. Living through terrorist attacks, military check points, convoys, personal losses, plane crashes, and the challenges of being a female researcher in a tough part of the world was not easy. I luckily got to meet the best comrades through these journeys, people who not only inspired me, but also gave me a home in their hearts in the darkest of the nights. Some of those did not make it through the end of my journey, but their marks are left deep in my soul. This thesis is a dedication to my dear person, Dr. Hilal Ozcetin. I miss you dearly Hilal jan and I am so grateful for all the lessons and love you brought to my life. A tribute to my dear teacher, Dr. Taghi Farvar, my wise friend, Dr. Shahram Vahdaty, and my inspiring friend, Ghanimat Azhdari, who was a victim of UIA Flight 752. I will miss playing and working with you always. I lost one of my special mentors, Dr. Hedayat Ghazanfari, right before my defence and during the global COVID19 pandemic. Despite the pain of this news, Hedayat’s inspiring resonance in my memory pushed me to work harder and prepare for my defence. Hedayat Jan, thanks for being a rare example of true environmentalist and nature-lover, and thanks showing me it is possible to stay true to my passions. I miss you. My deepest gratitude to my friends at Nature’s Club NGO in Kendrapara, India and Baba Ji, Daumoon NGO in Iran, and COAM NGO in Bamyan, Afghanistan. This research would not have been possible without your continuous support. Thank you Mehdi Mojtahedi and Hossein Varjavand Naseri for your friendship and assistance for data gathering. Thank you, Tara McFarlane, for your friendship and assistance. I am grateful to my friends, Pashootan, Carry Aileen, Dionne, Renee, Toktam, Ngoc- Tran, Gaetan, Zian, Peter, Cedar, Nazbanoo, Elaine, Sean, Bamdad, Azadeh, Maede, and Farnaz. Thanks for being there for me and offering your shoulders and brains whenever I needed support. My deepest gratitude to Dr. Mohammad Hossein Emadi, Dr. Grazia Borrini-Feyerabend, and Dr. Bob Anderson for your friendship, encouragement, and support. I am forever thankful for your kindness. vii Thank you, my gorgeous sister, Yasaman Norouzi. This journey brought you to my life before I even arrived in Canada and gave me a sister to cherish forever. Thank you for staying with me all through it. I have no words to thank you for becoming my family and shelter and offering your unconditional love and support. Having you in my life has made me brave and feel safe. Thank you, Hasan and Akram for adopting me into your generous family and giving me a home through some of the most challenging years of my life. I am eternally grateful. Special gratitude to my wonderful little sister, Azadeh, for her support, kindness, and generosity. I feel absolutely privileged to have shared these special years with you and to find such a wonderful comrade. I look forward to seeing what life brings us next. Thank you, Germaine for being an inspiration, support, and patience rock for me. It has been an honor to know you and go through this defence and quarantine journey with you. Thank you, Shireen Soofi for offering your unconditional friendship, kindness, and love. I am so grateful to have you in my life. Thank you, Samira Salimi for offering your heart and inspiring spirit to me and being a wonderful sister that lifts me up. Thanks to my aunts, uncles, cousins and grandmas for their support and kindness. I am grateful to my human, Michael Hutzli.