Running Head: ONLINE DATING AND RACISM 1 Master’s programme ‘Entertainment communication’ Master’s Thesis How racist is the online dating space? A qualitative investigation of experiences related to race discrimination on online dating apps among Black and Asian emerging adults from the ages of 18 to 25 Student: Mila Ganijun Student number: 11749784 Supervisor: Sindy R. Sumter Date of completion: 31.01.2020 Word count: 7,623 ONLINE DATING AND RACISM 2 Abstract As online dating is becoming increasingly popular among emerging adults, it becomes relevant to research their experiences while dating online. The current study specifically focuses on Black and Asian emerging adults and the obstacles they face while dating online due to their race. The study was conducted among Black and Asian emerging adults (aged 18- 25) who participated in in-depth interviews. The results suggest five main themes when it comes to the experiences Black and Asian emerging adults face: treated as other, lack of knowledge of the majority group, race as a disadvantage, the online disinhibition effect and coping mechanisms. To sum up, it was an even split between those who would categorize their overall online dating experiences as positive and those who would categorize them as negative. However, even those that reported their overall experience to be positive – reported facing obstacles due to their race. Notably, the findings call for further research on online dating when it comes to people of color as well as including the skin color factor (colorism). Keywords: racism, Asian emerging adults, Black emerging adults, online dating ONLINE DATING AND RACISM 3 How racist is the online dating space? A qualitative investigation of experiences related to race discrimination on online dating apps among Black and Asian emerging adults from the ages of 18 to 25 Introduction In today’s society, Black and Asian people still face discrimination in the work, academic and social sphere (e.g., Hahn, Truman, & Williams, 2018; Hunter, 2007; Verma & Mallick, 2017). When we talk about the social sphere specifically, dating for Black and Asian people does not come without its obstacles either. These obstacles vary from person to person as well as from race to race, however, research has shown that people are less willing to date Asian and Black people compared to white people (Tsunokai, Kposowa, & Adams, 2009). This unwillingness to date Asians and Black people is fueled by negative pre-conceived notions of what the two ethnic groups behave like and look like (e.g., Bany, Robnett, & Feliciano, 2014; Chou & Feagin, 2015). Furthermore, this race-based discrimination is present in the online world as well (Jakubowicz, 2017). The racism experienced by Asian and Black emerging adults affects them negatively in several ways. Firstly, when these negative attitudes towards the two ethnic groups are maintained – they become incorporated into institutions and policies which lead to Black and Asian people having less and unequal opportunities for employment, housing and education (Verma & Mallick, 2017). Secondly, the lack of these opportunities results in poor living conditions, poor education and lack of job opportunities which impacts the mental health of these individuals in a negative way (Williams & Williams-Morris, 2000). Finally, the well- being of Black and Asian people is affected negatively when they internalize the racist stereotypes that they face which also leads to a negative perception of the self (Williams & Williams-Morris, 2000). Having said this, it becomes important to explore the experiences Black and Asian emerging adults face when they date in the online world. ONLINE DATING AND RACISM 4 Although racism is experienced across the lifespan, focusing specifically on emerging adults - those aged between 18 and 25, becomes relevant as they are the group that are the fastest adapters to digital media as discussed by Valkenburg and Piotrowski (2017). Nowadays, it is not uncommon that relationships in fact start on an online platform. With the development of technology, online communication has become easy, accessible and more relevant than ever before. Moreover, emerging adults are relevant to explore because they spend more time using the media than doing any other activity (Coyne, Padilla-Walker, & Howard, 2013). As discussed by Hurd, Varner, Caldwell and Zimmerman (2014), emerging adulthood is a time when we become more vulnerable as we step into independence and we do not experience the same parental involvement as before. For emerging adults of color, this means that they are more likely to experience discrimination as they navigate adulthood (Hurd et al., 2014). This increased vulnerability makes it relevant to look into emerging adults specifically. There is an immense amount of research that documents that racism against Black and Asian people in the online world exists (e.g., Daniels, 2013; Gray, 2012; Hwang 2013; Keum & Miller, 2017; Robinson, 2015). For instance, Gray’s (2012) study documents that women of color face oppression in the online sphere of Xbox Live by being subjected to racism and nativism. Moreover, there is research that also provides for evidence of race discrimination in the dating space both online and offline (e.g., Bedi, 2015; Callander, Holt, & Newman, 2016; Hwang, 2013; Robinson & Frost, 2017). For instance, in the study conducted by Callander, Newman and Holt (2015), the authors Ω that sexual racism or racism in the context of dating and sex, was significantly present both online and offline and that it was highly tolerated and presented as just a personal preference. Moreover, the racism that Asian and Black people face also differs among their respective ethnic groups. As discussed by Zheng (2016), Asian women face so-called ‘Yellow ONLINE DATING AND RACISM 5 Fever’, a concept that is frequently also referred to as fetishization. Fetishization refers to someone having a fetish for a specific race that they usually specifically seek out and it is characterized by exoticizing the person of that specific race. When fetishization occurs, the characteristics of the person are often put on the side while their race takes on the most important role. Zheng (2016) discussed the fetishization of Asian women as non-flattering as well as disturbing. Moreover, the author argues that this fetishization puts an enormous psychological burden on those who are fetishized - Asian women (Zheng, 2016). When it comes to Asian men, research has shown that they are the group that gets the lowest ratings from daters out of all other races due to perceived low attractiveness (Fisman, Iyengar, Kamenica, & Simonson, 2008). In comparison to Asian women, research has shown that Black women face the stereotype of the ‘angry Black woman’ in the dating world (Childs, 2005). Black women are often painted as being angry, aggressive and therefore not as desirable to date. Bany et al. (2014) further examined that daters perceive Black women as less attractive as a result of the ‘angry Black woman’ stereotype while Black men were excluded for being perceived as aggressive and dangerous as well as because of the fear of social disapproval by friends and family. To sum up, the already existent research brings to light that Black and Asian individuals experience racism which has been linked to negative outcomes such as declining mental health. This is why it is important to conduct research on these two groups in order to comprehend the experiences these emerging adults face when they date online. Although some studies have investigated racism in relation to online dating, it remains unclear what types of experiences Black and Asian individuals have with dating - specifically on online platforms. This field remains relatively unexplored which is why it is valuable to address the issue, especially with a qualitative study that will provide for elaborate explanations on the experiences faced. ONLINE DATING AND RACISM 6 My research in particular will investigate the racism Black and Asian individuals face in the online dating world as it seems as though there is a gap in this particular field of research from a media and communication perspective at this moment. Having said this, the research question for this study is: ‘Which obstacles do Black and Asian emerging adults, between the ages of 18 and 25, face when they date online?’. Theoretical background Personal preferences/racial profiling In order to investigate the discrimination faced by Black and Asian individuals, I will primarily focus on personal preferences as a sensitizing concept. Personal preferences refer to the specific likes and/or dislikes of individuals. I will take on the role of analyzing how these preferences can be disguised as racist preferences. They are disguised racist preferences because they are not considered racist by those dating app users that perpetuate them. To those dating app users, these preferences are merely personal. However, Robinson (2015) discusses how these so-called personal preferences are used in the online space, specifically on dating apps, in order to perform exclusionary practices such as excluding specific people exclusively and primarily based on their race. These exclusionary practices are known as the concept referred to as racial profiling. Racial profiling occurs when people claim that they date only specific races because they prefer their values, characteristics and culture, however, the decision-making process that resulted in that has been influenced by larger racial stereotypes and other pre-conceived notions (Sweeney & Borden, 2009). Thus, people may express they only date one certain race. These exclusionary practices known as racial profiling are also often encouraged by the features of the dating apps themselves as users are able to explicitly state which race they are willing to date and which not in their online profiles. For instance, on a gay dating social app called Grindr, it is encouraged to fill in the ethnicity drop-down menu where you are able to ONLINE DATING AND RACISM 7 pick 9 different categories as to which race you identify as (Shield, 2018).