Киї вськии університет Національнии університет імені Бориса Грінченка «Києво-Могилянська академія» CONTRASTIVE GRAMMAR: Theory and Practice KYIV 2019 0 УДК 811.111-112(076) Contrastive Grammar: Theory and Practice = Порівняльна граматика: теорія і практика: навч. посіб. / авт.-сост.: Н. Ф. Гладуш, Н. В. Павлюк; Київ. ун-т. ім. Б. Грінченка; Нац. ун-т «Києво-Могилянська акад.». – К., 2019. – 296 с. Навчальний посібник з порівняльної граматики англійської та української мов висвітлює теоретичні питання, які розкривають спільні та відмінні риси у структурі двох мов. Кожна тема з морфології та синтаксису супроводжується практичними завданнями, які допомагають краще зрозуміти і засвоїти матеріал. У другій частині надаються таблиці, які систематизують і класифікують явища, що вивчаються. Посібник відповідає програмі курсу «Порівняльна граматика англійської та української мов» для вищих навчальних закладів. Розраховано на студентів спеціальності «Філологія» навчальних закладів вищої освіти, викладачів та усіх, кого цікавлять питання структурної організації мови. УДК 811.111-112(076) 1 CONTENTS Preface 4 Unit 1. Introduction to Contrastive Grammar 5 Unit 2. Basic Grammar Notions 16 Unit 3. Contrastive Morphology 19 Unit 4. The Noun in English and Ukrainian 26 Unit 5. The Adjective, Numeral and Pronoun in English and Ukrainian 34 Unit 6. The Article 43 Unit 7. Functional Parts of Speech in English and Ukrainian 48 Unit 8. The Verb in English and Ukrainian 55 Unit 9. Verbals in English and Ukrainian 65 Unit 10. The Adverb and Stative in English and Ukrainian 72 Unit 11. Contrastive Syntax. Phrases in English and Ukrainian 78 Unit 12. The Simple sentence in English and Ukrainian 87 Unit 13. The Composite Sentence in English and Ukrainian 95 Unit 14. Contrastive Pragmatics. Pragmatic types of sentences in 99 English and Ukrainian Unit 15. Politeness in English and Ukrainian 109 References 118 2 PREFACE Language is like a human being – it never stays the same, it reacts to all that happens around, it transforms over time, and gets difficult to recognize. Like a person, it tries to find the best way to reflect reality, puts words together in a certain way, and its logic is sometimes difficult to understand. Moreover, it has its own skeleton which helps it function in the world. All languages seem to be so different that it scares those who think of learning more of them, and still they have a lot in common. How is it possible that languages with different structures have so many similarities? What makes them look for compensation if they lack this or that structure, inflexion, suffix or any other grammatical element? Why is a table, a tree or a book are ‘he’ for some languages, and ‘she’ – for another, and some of languages do not make any difference? There are so many exciting questions that need answering if you are a real fan of linguistics. This book tells about grammatical structures of two languages, English and Ukrainian. Specifics of different word-groups, their grammatical categories are described here: comparing nouns in these two languages you will see that they have much more in common than it may seem; looking at verbs you will be surprised what amazing things a language can do to compensate a lack of some grammatical category. Syntax, so important for all translators, appears to be both similar and different for English and Ukrainian, which makes our studies more complicated and still, more fascinating. When we read some theory, no matter how interesting it is, we need practicing to understand and remember it better. So, each unit of the book contains some practical exercises which will help you penetrate deeper into each problem and make this knowledge a solid part of your professional expertise. We also took care that the theory you study is systematized and classified, so all the material is presented in the form of tables in the second part of the book. In training for your future work as a translator, interpreter, editor or teacher, grammar cannot be overestimated. Mastering grammar you can obtain profound knowledge of a language, realizing why grammatical structures work so and in no other way, how word-order works in languages with analytical and synthetic features, why grammar can be important for being polite and behaving properly in society. Here we go, to the exciting new world of contrastive grammar, with all our creative energy, eager to master this subject and use this knowledge later on! Natalia Pavliuk 3 UNIT 1. Introduction to Contrastive Grammar 1. Contrastive Grammar as a linguistic discipline. 2. Basic notions of Contrastive grammar. 3. Basic notions of Grammar: functions of language, language as a structure, the system of language, syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations, linguistic signs as units of two fold nature. 4. Types of Languages. Contrastive grammar is a branch of contrastive linguistics that aims at establishing common and divergent as well as dominant and recessive features of the grammatical structure of the languages compared and determining their structural types on this basis. The number of languages subjected to typological contrasting at a time is not limited. Contrastive investigations may be focused on various linguistic phenomena ranging from separate signs of the phonetic/ phonological, morphological, lexical or syntactic phenomena of the languages. Contrastive grammar as a branch of linguistics employs some terms and notions of its own: 1) Absolute universals (i.e. features which are common to any languages of the world, cf. parts of speech, parts of the sentence etc.); 2) Near universals, i.e. features which are common to some languages under typological investigation; 3) Metalanguage, i.e. the language in which analysis of contrasted languages is carried out; 4) Typologically dominant features, i.e. features dominating in one/some/all the contrasted languages and predetermining its structural type as analytical or synthetic; cf. rigid word order, prominent role of prepositions in expressing case relations, word morphemes in expressing grammar categories, etc. in English and case, person, gender, number, tense etc. inflexions in Ukrainian; 5) Typologically recessive features, i.e. features losing their former dominant role; cf. case forms in English or dual number forms of some nouns in Ukrainian; 6) Isomorphic features, i.e. common features, observed in all the compared languages; cf. categories of number, person, tense, parts of speech. 7) Allomorphic features, i.e. divergent features, observed in one language and missing in others; cf. analytical verb forms in English; 8) Typological constants, i.e. features that are contrasted. The main typological constants of the English and Ukrainian morphology are: 1) morphemes; 2) parts of speech; 3) morphological categories of the parts of speech. Contrastive typological investigations are carried out with the help of some methods. The main one is the contrastive method, which is also employed in historical and comparative linguistics. The main aim of the contrastive method is to establish isomorphic and allomorphic, dominant and recessive features of the languages compared and drawing conclusions as to their structural types. Comparing is done on the basis of deduction and induction. Inductive method draws on the empirical facts: scientists observe the facts, make conclusions and verify these conclusions by more facts. Practically, this method needs no verification since preceding generations of researchers already proved the investigated phenomena. Deductive method presupposes making conclusions on the basis of logical calculations, which suggest all theoretically admissive variants of realization of a certain feature in, contrasted languages and consequently need verification. The (ICs) immediate constituents method is employed to contrast constituent parts of the language units. At the morphological level the ICs method helps determine morphemic structures of the words of the languages compared; cf. the nouns in-nova-tion-s and пере-напр-уг-а consist of 4 ICs. Method of oppositions is used to establish grammatical categories. Opposition is made by two forms carrying two manifestations of one categorical meaning, cf. works :: is working carry two particular manifestations (non-Continuous :: continuous) of the general categorical meaning of aspect. The term “grammar” goes back to a Greek word that may be translated as the “art of writing”. But later this word acquired a much wider sense and came to embrace the whole study of language. Now it is often used as the synonym of linguistics. Language is understood as a system of signals (linguistic signs), interconnected and interdependent. It is this network of interdependent elements that forms the object of linguistics as an independent science. Language as a system of signals may be compared to other systems of signals, such as writing, alphabets for the deaf-and-dumb, military signals, symbolic rites, forms of courtesy, etc. Thus, language becomes the object of a more general science — semiotics — that studies different systems of signals used in human societies. The difference of language and other sign systems may be presented graphically: Language Other Sign System Natural Artificial Open Closed Used by all Used by a definite group of people A system of denotators A system of indicators 5 A sign may have several meanings A sign has one meaning Universal Situationally conditioned Language has two aspects: the system of language (French: langue) and the manifestation of this system in social intercourse — speech (French: parole). The system of language is a body of linguistic units — sounds, affixes, words, grammar rules and rules of lexical series. The system of language enables us to speak and to be understood since all members of a speech community know it. Speech is the total of our utterances and texts. It is based on the system of language, and it gives the linguist the possibility of studying the system. Speech is the linear (syntagmatic) aspect of languages; the system of language is its paradigmatic aspect. The linguistic sign is bilateral, i.e. it has both form and meaning.