University of Denver Digital Commons @ DU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Graduate Studies 1-1-2012 The Arctic Game Sarah E. Nuernberger University of Denver Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd Part of the Climate Commons, and the International Relations Commons Recommended Citation Nuernberger, Sarah E., "The Arctic Game" (2012). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 894. https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd/894 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate Studies at Digital Commons @ DU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ DU. For more information, please contact [email protected],[email protected]. THE ARCTIC GAME __________ A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the Josef Korbel School of International Studies University of Denver __________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts __________ by Sarah E. Nuernberger June 2012 Advisor: Dr. Dale Rothman ©Copyright by Sarah E. Nuernberger 2012 All Rights Reserved Author: Sarah E. Nuernberger Title: THE ARCTIC GAME Advisor: Dr. Dale Rothman Degree Date: June 2012 Abstract Since outsiders first visited the Arctic, they have believed in man’s ability to conquer the region. Today’s Arctic conquest is not one of heroic exploration, but rather one of ownership and exploitation. This paper illustrates contestation in the Arctic through the metaphor of a game, with attendant prizes, players, and rules. It focuses on how to prevent the future destruction of the Arctic given the interactions of the Arctic’s landscape, prizes, players, and current management frameworks. In the wake of renewed resource exploitation and escalating climate change impacts, the current frameworks and mindsets are inadequate to support the precarious balance of cooperation and competition in the region. The presence of an indigenous population is a defining characteristic of the Arctic landscape, requiring a change from traditional policy methods as an appropriate management tool. Turning toward leadership from northern indigenous populations and following the example of cooperation initiated by the natural science community may be the best way forward to prevent a dystopian future for the Arctic. ii Table of Contents Chapter One: Introduction .................................................................................................. 1 Chapter Two: History ......................................................................................................... 4 History Before There Was History ......................................................................... 4 Early Exploration .................................................................................................... 5 The Hunt for the Northwest Passage and Northern Sea Route ............................... 8 The Race to the North Pole ................................................................................... 11 Cold War Strategy................................................................................................. 14 Modern Day .......................................................................................................... 17 Chapter Three: Landscape of the Game............................................................................ 18 Rapid and Accelerating Change ............................................................................ 21 Local Impacts ........................................................................................................ 24 Global Impacts ...................................................................................................... 25 Chapter Four: Prizes of the Game ..................................................................................... 27 Living Marine Resources ...................................................................................... 27 Minerals ................................................................................................................ 29 Oil and Natural Gas .............................................................................................. 33 Shipping Routes .................................................................................................... 35 Tourism ................................................................................................................. 37 Chapter Five: Players of the Game I – State Actors ......................................................... 40 Security ................................................................................................................. 40 Arctic States .......................................................................................................... 41 Russia. ....................................................................................................... 41 United States. ............................................................................................ 44 Canada....................................................................................................... 46 Denmark. ................................................................................................... 48 Norway. ..................................................................................................... 49 Finland, Iceland, and Sweden. .................................................................. 52 The European Union ............................................................................................. 53 Other States ........................................................................................................... 54 Chapter Six: Players of the Game II – Non-State Actors ................................................. 57 Indigenous People’s Groups ................................................................................. 58 National Policy toward the Indigenous and Increased Autonomy ........................ 59 Greenland. ................................................................................................. 59 Canada....................................................................................................... 61 United States. ............................................................................................ 64 Russia. ....................................................................................................... 64 Scandinavia. .............................................................................................. 65 iii Chapter Seven: Current Rules of the Game ...................................................................... 67 Sovereignty of Marine Areas and the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ................................................................................................................... 68 Disputes over Land Areas ..................................................................................... 75 Arctic Cooperation ................................................................................................ 75 Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS)................................... 76 Arctic Council. .......................................................................................... 77 A Role for Science - The International Polar Year ............................................... 82 Chapter Eight: The Rules Going Forward ........................................................................ 86 The Antarctic Treaty System – A Flawed Model for the Arctic ........................... 86 Antarctic Treaty Membership and Exclusivity. ........................................ 90 Mineral Resources. ................................................................................... 93 Arctic Treaty Opposition and the Ilulissat Declaration. ........................... 95 Alternatives ........................................................................................................... 96 Chapter Nine: Conclusion ............................................................................................... 101 References ....................................................................................................................... 104 iv Chapter One: Introduction The stories of Arctic exploration are dark, full of failure and defeat. With its subzero temperatures and brutal winds, the Arctic challenged even the toughest, most experienced explorers. At the same time, the Arctic is a place of incomparable beauty. In the summer months, the sun does not set, reflecting off the pristine white ice cap as far as the eye can see. In the winter, when the sun does not rise, the aurora borealis dances across the dark sky. This intriguing, yet injurious, environment brings its own idiosyncrasies. For centuries, indigenous survival techniques have prevailed over the influx of modern technologies. Long-distance travel via dogsled is preferred to snowmobile and reindeer skin parkas over synthetic fabrics for warmth. But, two intertwined forces are challenging this stability. Global climate change and technological advances have altered the landscape, leading to the growth of natural resource development. This increased activity brings a time of growing competition in the Arctic, pitting the interests of humans against the environment, countries against each other, and indigenous populations against national governments. These pressures are breaking down the Arctic’s natural defense system,