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Changed Lives, Flexible Identities and Adaptable Responses: A Comparative History of post-1950 Scottish Migrants in New Zealand and Hong Kong A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom By Iain Watson Doctor of Philosophy The University of Edinburgh 2017 1 Abstract This thesis explores two forms of modern Scottish migration, settler and sojourner migrations. It addresses the differing motives behind the choice of migration and the impact of different host environments on the creation and use of Scottish identity, the deployment of ethno-cultural capital, the use of social networks, Scottish associationalism, nationalism, and the return behaviours of Scottish migrants since 1950. The vehicle for this exploration is a comparison of Scottish migration to New Zealand and Hong Kong, where the former is used as an example of settler migration and the latter of sojourner migration. The study uses in-depth, semi- structured life-story interviews of settler migrants and the descendants of earlier settlers in New Zealand and the sojourners and returned sojourners of Hong Kong. These oral history interviews are supported by surveys of migrants in the host locations and returned sojourners in the UK and further validated against statistical sources. The thesis argues that migrant identities are individually manufactured, plural and fluid but also subject to change dependent on the demands of environment and the individual's needs as much as any inherent national identity. The comparative nature of the study highlights that migrant responses differ between destinations. Additionally, the comparison addresses the little understood or researched modern Scottish sojourner. The comparison against the better understood settler migrant cohort draws out the differences in motivations, identity constructions and deployment of Scottishness between the migrant groups. Both groups use their Scottish identities with varying intensity. In New Zealand, where Scottish identities are part of the cultural mainstream, and maintained by a multi-generational cohort, promotion is less intense than in Hong Kong. There, the small number of Scottish sojourners actively target and promote a hybrid form of human, cultural and social capital, as both a personal resource and a basis for usable networks. The thesis labels this form of capital as ethno-cultural capital, defined as the advantage or disadvantage, which accrues to an individual from belonging to, or being associated with, a particular ethnic group. 2 The thesis builds on earlier studies and emphasises that the fluidity of identity construction has continued into the twenty-first century. Migration requires of individuals that they constantly reappraise and recalibrate their identities to align themselves to the environments of their destination as well as the homeland upon return, a constant and circular renegotiation of change. The thesis identifies ethno- cultural capital as a hybrid form of capital, suggesting that Scottish migrants tend to be among its more adept promoters. It also proposes explanations as to why Scottish migrants are prepared to invest time and resources in ethno-cultural capital promotion. Reflecting the central themes of change, flexibility and adaptability, the thesis also argues that freed from the rigidity of colonial structures, Scottish associationalism in Hong Kong has broadened its reach and become more responsive to migrant needs. In contrast, New Zealand’s traditional Scottish associations have declined and their roles as sites of memory have been replaced by newer associational forms such as family history and genealogy research. 3 Lay Summary The Scots have been a migratory people throughout the country’s history, peaking in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. While the demand for Scottish labour may have diminished in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, skilled and well educated Scottish migrants continue to hold an attraction for countries looking to enhance or supplement their human resources. These migrations may either involve a permanent break with Scotland so as to settle in another country, or may be a temporary sojourn with the intention of returning to Scotland or the UK at the end of the migration period. This study explores these two forms of modern Scottish migration by comparing the challenges posed and responses of migrants in two different destinations: New Zealand and Hong Kong. In the former, the migrants tend to be settlers, who find themselves in a society that has a significant Scottish heritage. In the latter, they are a small group of expatriate sojourners who inhabit the margins of a Chinese society, which is largely alien to them and difficult to integrate within. Using oral history interviews supported by surveys, the study addresses the differing motives behind migration choices and the impact of different environments on migrants and their creation and use of Scottish identity. It also investigates how migrants portray themselves to their host society through the use of their Scottish identity, their social networks and associations. The study finds that there is no stereotypical Scottish identity common to all migrants. Identities are individually fashioned, drawn from a range of sources and subject to change dependent on the demands of the host environment and the individual's needs rather than any formal national identity. Migrant responses differ between destinations, and are characterised by their individuality and adaptability to different environments, circumstances and challenges. It also argues that Scottish migrants tend to be among the more adept at promoting their ethno-cultural capital, or their perceived benefit, to the host society before finally addressing the challenges that return can pose for the different migrant groups. 4 Acknowledgements Firstly, my thanks to my Supervisors, Professors Enda Delaney and Angela McCarthy whose support and guidance have been core to the completion of this thesis. My thanks especially to Enda for his calming influence, humour and his insights into the behaviours of other ethnic groups, against which the project’s Scottish behaviours could be usefully benchmarked. Also, to Angela for making the time to meet in both Scotland and New Zealand, despite the tyranny of distance. Her knowledge of Scottish migration and her editorial input were much valued, as was her kind inclusion of me to speak at conferences and workshops. Also greatly appreciated was the funding for the project provided by the Scottish Government’s Scottish Funding Council, which facilitated travel to Hong Kong and New Zealand for research and to collect oral history interviews. My thanks also to Angela’s University of Otago undergraduates for their assistance in transcription, and Kinta Lindsay, a daughter of first generation migrants to Australia, who brought her para-legal skills to bear in proof-reading the thesis, and acting as a lay sounding board for many of my ideas. In addition, the assistance of the various Scottish Associations that helped in circulating the project’s surveys, especially the Hong Kong St Andrews Society and Lois Fawcett and Bev Moseley from the Scottish Interest Group of the New Zealand Society of Genealogists. My gratitude also goes to the hundreds of respondents to those surveys, and those who engaged with me on various social media sites, providing memories and insights into their migrations and sojourns. Finally, and most importantly, my thanks to the project’s interviewees, for their candidness, their kindness and generosity, and for inviting me into their homes and offices to share their life stories, without which there would be no thesis. 5 Contents Page Introduction 10 1.1 Introductory Comments 11 1.2 Diaspora 14 1.3 Why New Zealand and Hong Kong? 16 1.4 Comparative Analysis and Oral History 18 1.5 The Historical Context 22 1.5.1 Hong Kong’s Scottish Story 22 1.5.2 New Zealand’s Scottish Story 28 1.6 Methodology 32 1.7 Thesis Themes and Structure 36 Settling and Sojourning 44 2.1 Introduction 45 2.2 Scottish Emigration in Context 50 2.3 Migration Motives 66 2.3.1 Hong Kong Migrants 68 2.3.2 New Zealand Migrants 75 2.3.3 New Zealand Multi-Generational Descent Group 84 2.4 Concluding Comments 88 Choosing Ethnic Identities 92 3.1 Introduction 93 3.2 Identity Selection as an Adult 99 3.3 Identity Selection Amongst Infants, Children and 103 Adolescents 3.4 Destination as an Identity Determinant 114 3.5 Identity Intensification 118 3.6 Concluding Comments 121 6 Page A Liquid Scottish Identity 124 4.1 Introduction 125 4.2 Perceived Markers of Scottish Culture