UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII LIBRARY CHANGE IN THE AGRICULTURAL LAND USE IN WEST UPOLU WESTERN SAMOA THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OP UNIVERSITY OP HAWAII IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OP MASTER OF ARTS IN GEOGRAPHY SEPTEMBER 1967 By Nevin A. Bryant Thesis Committee: Peter N. D. Pirie, Chairman Robert M. Warner Forrest R. Pitts H^unA 635223 1 We certify that we have read this thesis and that in our opinion it is satisfactory in scope and quality as a thesis for the degree of Master of Arts in Geography. THESIS COMMITTEE TABLE OP CONTENTS Page LIST OP TABLES.................................... lv LIST OP F I G U R E S .................................. vi GLOSSARY OP SAMOAN TERMS ........................ Viii CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION................. 1 CHAPTER II. THE PATTERN OP VILLAGE AGRICULTURE TODAY................ 8 The Land Tenure S y s t e m .... 8 The Pattern of Land Use ...... 16 CHAPTER III. SAMOAN AGRICULTURE PRIOR TO FOREIGN ADMINISTRATION.......... 28 The Pre-Contact Period .......... 28 Missionaries, Traders, and Wars . 31 CHAPTER IV. ADMINISTRATION RULE PRIOR TO WORLD WAR I I .................... 39 Stability Under German Rule 1900-1914 39 The New Zealand Occupation and Mandate until 1926 ....... 43 The Mau and the Depression 195^1936 ...................... 53 The Period Prior to World War II (1936-1942)............ 57 CHAPTER V. WORLD WAR II AND POSTWAR CHANGE . 60 The United States Armed Forces Occupation .............. 60 Postwar Agricultural Change .... 62 CHAPTER VI. THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND CROP ECOLOGY OP WEST UPOLU ............ 75 Climate.......................... 75 So l i s........... 81 Crop Requirements................ 85 The Yearly Cycle of Planting and H a r v e s t i n g ............... 89 1 1 iii Page The Productive Capacity of Village C r o p s ................. 91 Cropping System .................... 93 CHAPTER VII. POPULATION DYNAMICS IN WEST UPOLU . 96 Migration.......................... 97 Village Population Characteristics. 101 CHAPTER VIII. VILLAGE ECONOMICS .................... 117 The Pattern of W o r k .................. 117 Subsistence Requirements of the Villagers................... 121 Sources of Cash Income ............ 129 Cash Expenditure.................... 135 CHAPTER IX. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGES WI1H THE A I G A .................... 142 The Effects of a Growing Population 143 The Effect of Increased Mobility • . 146 The Quest for Eoonomio Independence in the Alga................. 147 CHAPTER X. VILLAGE LAND USE CHANGE: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.................. 151 BIBLIOGRAPHY...................................... 161 APPENDIX.......................................... 170 iv LIST OF TABLES age Matal Holdings ........................ 17 1954 Village Land U s e ................ 18 Principal Imports 1884 ................ 34 Area In Forests In Districts of West U p o l u .................... .. 64 District Copra Produotion ............ 66 Village Oopra Production .............. 68 Village Banana Production ............ 70 Cacao Acreages In West Upolu ...... 73 Soils of West U p o l u • . set) Soil Types of West Upolu .............. set) Nutrient Uptake of Crops .............. 86 Incidence of Blackpod Disease to Cacao Trees ••••• .............. 87 Productive Capacity of Samoan Crops . 92 Population Increase In West Upolu . 96 Movement to New Zealand .............. 102 Changes In Village Habitation Densities 103 Population Change in West Upolu . • . 104 Wage Workers Living In West Upolu . 105 Village Labor Input to Agriculture . 120 Samoan Food Preferences, Nutritive Value .................... 123 Average Weekly Consumption Per Consumption Unit .................... 127 V Page XXI. Calorie Requirements by Age and Sex .... 128 XXII. Cash Income .................... 130 XXIII. Price Paid to Villagers for Cocoa Pods and C o c o n u t s ................... • . 133 XXIV. Cash Expenditures.................... .. 136 XXV. Household Possessions Survey ........ 139 XXVI. Goods Exchanged at a Church Dedication . 140 XXVII. Goods Given to a Visiting Pastor .......... 140 XXVIII. Ratios Matal : Alga 1926-1966 145 XXIX. Per Capita Crop Averages, 1942, 1954, 1966 ........................ 157 Vi LIST OP FIGURES Page 1. Per Capita Value of Exports 1901-1966 .......... 3 2. Cost of Living Index 1951-1966 ......... 4 3. Location M a p ................................ 5 4. Map of Boundary Disputes Between Villages .... 12 5. Time - Distance in Falease'ela.............. 15 6. Village Alga Holdings of Falelatal ........ (inset) 7. Alienated Land 1 9 2 1 .......................... 37 8. Spread of Bunchytop Disease.................. 71 9. Mean Annual R a i n f a l l ........................ 76 10. Dry Season Rainfall.......... 77 11. Wet Season Rainfall......................... 78 12. Yearly Cycle of Planting and Harvesting by Districts ........................ 90 13* Change in the Infant Mortality R a t e .......... 98 14. Populations in Eaoh Age and Sex Group Who Moved Away 1965-66 100 15. Lefaga: Populations in Each Age and Sex Group. 107 16. Falelatal: Populations in Each Age and Sex G r o u p ...................................... 109 17. Mulifanua: Populations in Each Age and Sex Group .................................... 112 18. A'ana N o r t h ...................................115 19. Settlement Inland in West U p o l u ............. (inset) 20. Crop Acreage Change in Lefaga ............... 152 21. Crop Acreage Change in F a l e l a t a l ............. 153 vii Page 22. Crop Acreage Change In M u l i f a n u a ............ 154- 23. Crop Acreage Change In A'ana N o r t h .......... 155 Appendix a. Price for Copra Paid to Samoans 1900-1966 .... 171 h. Prloe for Cocoa Paid to Samoans 1900-1966 .... 172 c. Price for Bananas Paid to Samoans 1900-1966 . 173 GLOSSARY OP SAMOAN TERMS (Note: the £ in Samoan is pronounced n£) aiga - the extended family group basic to Samoan society; in a village it would inolude all closely related relatives, especially of the male descent group. aiga potopoto - oolleotive term for all the members of a lineage who have the right to be present at, and to take part in, the election of a new matal. ali'i - A ohief, usually the highest, or one of the highest ranking matal in a village. aualuma - the traditional association of the unmarried girls of a village that serve the taupou. 'aumaga - the traditional association of the young un­ titled adult males; the male village work force. fale - a Samoan house. fono - a council of matal. 'ie toga - the Samoan fine mat; a traditional form of currency and instrument of ceremonial exohange. malaga - a journey. matal - the titled head of a Samoan extended family (formally elected and honored as suoh). Mau - the organization which opposed the New Zealand administration between 1927-1936. maumaga - the Samoan villager's taro patoh. olo - a defensible place, usually situated inland. palusami - a Samoan food made from taro leaves and cooo- nut milk. pule - (of land) - control; a form of trust ownership vested in the matal. pulenu'u - a village matal appointed by the village fono to act as the government's representative and to perform local administrative duties. i x sa - a decree prohibiting or restricting social conduct or agricultural production in a village. ta'amu - giant taro (alooasla spp.) taule'ale'a - an untitled man (pi. taulele'a) taupou - the traditional village virgin; usually the daughter of an all1!. tiapula - the crown and stalks of a mature taro out off for replanting. tulafale - an orator, one of the types of matal. umu - The Samoan ground oven; also refers to the small hut that houses the ground oven. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION In 1962 Western Samoa became the first of the United Kation3 .trusteeship's Territories In the Pacifio to become self-governing and Independent of its trustee power. With that independence, the new government took upon Itself all of the privileges and responsibilities of managing the country's social and ecunnio welfare. The success of this venture in self-government may well depend on whether the country can continue to develop. Although only nine per­ cent of the local Income for the Western Samoan Government is derived from agricultural export duties levied upon crops produced in the villages, village onsh-crop exports accounted for 56 percent of the national incone in 1965. Despite plans to broaden tho oountry's economic base by 1970, at least 43 percent of the national income must continue to be derived from village exports.^ It has been estimated that 95 peroent of the brnana ex­ ports, 85 peroent of the copra, and 75 peroent of the cocoa exports are currently derived from village production. In 1964 the value of the export duty on these crops mas 4204,097, approximately 4169,501 being contributed by vil­ lagers. Receipts from all Government departments were 42,184,657. (Sources: Tabic 46, "Banana cases Shipped, 1961-1966"; Table 50, "Copra Exported by Weight and. Value, and Countries of Destination, 1961-1965"î Table 51, "Co­ coa Exported by Weight and Value, and Countries of Destina­ tion, 1961-1965"! Table 73* "Statement of Receipts of the Departments and Sections of the Government of Western Samoa, 1962-1967"; In: Western Samoa Statistical Bulletin. 4th Quarter 1966, and Economic Development Programme, 1966- 1970, p.71). 2 By graphing the per capita value of crop exports of Western Samoa from 1901 to the present an interesting trend aonears (see Figure 1.). After World War II there occurred a sharp increase in the volume and value of oron exports commensurate