Running Head: ISLAMIC CALLIGRAPHY: ROUND AND RECTILINEAR SCRIPT Islamic Calligraphy: A Comparison between Round and Rectilinear Script Noor Danielle Murteza U14121079 Cultural Studies University of Sharjah – CFAD - Running Head: ISLAMIC CALLIGRAPHY: ROUND AND RECTILINEAR SCRIPT Contents INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 3 CLASSIFICATION RESEARCH ............................................................................................................ 3 RECTILINEAR AND ROUNDED STYLES ............................................................................................... 4 Rectilinear. ................................................................................................................................................ 4 RECTILINEAR AND ISLAMIC CALLIGRAPHY ................................................................................ 5 Rounded. ................................................................................................................................................... 6 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................. 7 Running Head: ISLAMIC CALLIGRAPHY: ROUND AND RECTILINEAR SCRIPT INTRODUCTION Rectilinear and rounded are two classifications for Islamic calligraphy. They have been the subject of numerous academic studies and publications1 that seek to describe their origins, how they were used, and the way they developed into related styles. My aim in this paper is to delineate the main characteristics of each, briefly taking into consideration their stylistic differences and practical applications and usage throughout history. Also taken into consideration is the question of classification methods, how calligraphy relates to Arabic, and the idea that Arabic calligraphy is allied with Islamic art. Calligraphy may be defined as an art which is founded upon a code of geometric and decorative rules; an art which, in the patterns which it creates, implies a theory of language and of writing.2 The closest approximation to this word found in the Arabic language is the word Khatt.3 As Sheila Blair describes “The Arabic (word) Khatt was traditionally bound with the notion of trace.” The word is closely related to the idea of creating a mark, an aesthetic mark. CLASSIFICATION RESEARCH One of the most detailed systems of classifications of scripts was that of Francois Droche, which took into account the shape of six pivotal letters.4 Other scholars analyzed and documented the position of letters, their form, elongation, formatting of the page, diacritical markings and spacing between words and lines. A common method of researchers is to classify Running Head: ISLAMIC CALLIGRAPHY: ROUND AND RECTILINEAR SCRIPT different styles by identifying proportions, in most cases the length of the letter Alif, measured with dots, was taken as a module. The dot was a basic diamond shape created by the reed pen of the calligrapher.5 RECTILINEAR AND ROUNDED STYLES The classification used in this paper describes the overall style of the calligraphy as either rectilinear or rounded (see Fig.1). Rectilinear. Rectilinear script encompasses many different scripts that are often referred to collectively as Kufic.6 This script had many regional variations throughout time, but its most important features remained standard. From the oldest variations of Kufic in Mecca and Madina, emerged the newer regional styles including Eastern and Western Kufic. Other Kufic scripts that are categorized based on style not region, include the Foliated Kufic, Plaited Kufic, Square Kufic (see Fig.2). The script was a priestly script, used by scholars to transcribe the Küran and other official documents. It was monumental and geometric and almost never featured diacritical markings for short vowels.7 Early examples can be seen in Masahif, or Küranic folios, as well as in architecture, coinage, and cloth. The graffito found at Taif in the Hijaz area of modern Saudi Arabia is one of the earliest examples of Arabic writing. The calligrapher, ‘Amr bin Janab, records the construction of a damn by the Umayyad Caliph Mu’awiya bin Abi Sufyan.8 The graffito was written in rectilinear Kufic script (see Fig.3). Fifteen of the letters used are pointed including the letters, ba’, ta’, tha’, nun, and ya’. The Alif terminates at the bottom with a crescent shaped curve leading to the right. Running Head: ISLAMIC CALLIGRAPHY: ROUND AND RECTILINEAR SCRIPT Many of the letters are elongated horizontally parallel to the baseline. Some letters conform to the vertical upward line such as the letter Lam. There is a rigidity to the words, but the spacing between them create a rhythm which acts as a fundamental tool of organization in later Kufic styles.9 Diacritical marks are used in this monumental inscription, which is rather unusual for early Kufic script. RECTILINEAR AND ISLAMIC CALLIGRAPHY Most Kufic manuscripts that have survived are Küranic manuscripts, since rectilinear script was the chief script used to transcribe the Küran until the late 9th early 10th century. Writing was carried out in a horizontal format which allowed for the large spaces between the words (mashq). In most cases a single page has only up to five lines on it. A later example of Western Kufic script is the ‘Blue Küran’, dated to the 9th or 10th century and written in Northern Africa, in Qairawan, or in Western Islamic lands of AlAndalus.10 The golden script glistens in blue indigo dyed vellum.11 Similar features of Kufic script are seen, the pointed letters, the rhythm in the elongation of the letters, large spacing between words, and the classic curved Alif (see Fig.4). These observations are echoed by A. George12 whose work centers on uncovering the geometric proportions in the Kufic Script. He describes a harmony and rhythm to the script creating by repeating proportions that were held sacred by many ancient civilizations. An important discussion in the subject of Arabic calligraphy is the validity of calling the artistic practice Arabic. In my view, a more accurate term for this art form is Islamic Calligraphy.13 There is a twofold reason. First, the strong attachment calligraphy and the written word have with the sacred in the Islamic faith makes it foolish to attempt to separate them. Those entrusted with transcribing the Küran often viewed their work as scared and holy. Second, the Running Head: ISLAMIC CALLIGRAPHY: ROUND AND RECTILINEAR SCRIPT argument against the encompassing term of Islamic art14 does not apply to such a unifying potent tradition that was shared by more than one language. It is true that the script used in the majority of the examples left behind is Arabic, but the languages expressed ranged from Arabic, Persian, to Turkish.15 Rounded. Round script is a script that speaks to this multiple languages point directly, since it was a script that was quickly taken up by different languages, especially Persian, and developed into local styles. Rounded script can be divided historically into two phases: cursive script16, and broken cursive17. Cursive script can be seen as an experimentation phase that still held on to many of the practices used in Kufic script but with an adoption of a more rounded form. This script is distinct in its utilization of thick and thin strokes. The letter Alif begins with a serif and is not absolutely vertical, as seen in the preceding Kufic, as it has a slight wave-like bend. The bowls of letters such as nun, and qaf are rounded, as well as the loops of letters like the mem, and ‘ayn. The letter dal decreases in size to a small stroke 45 degrees to the baseline. The words are far closer together on the pages and there are more lines per page18 (see Fig. 5). Manuscripts were often signed with the calligrapher’s name, which was not previously seen in Kufic manuscripts. However, the cursive script still maintained breaking the words into different lines as was seen in Kufic writings19. The one generally accredited with the standardization of the cursive script is Ibn Muqla (886-940 CE)20. He utilized the previously mentioned system of using the thickness of the reed pen to measure proportions. After becoming standardized the cursive script began to replace Kufic script in official court documents and even Küran transcription21. This script was common Running Head: ISLAMIC CALLIGRAPHY: ROUND AND RECTILINEAR SCRIPT by the tenth century, although slowly receiving different stylization that transformed into broken cursive. Broken cursive was free flowing and stylized compared to cursive script, but it maintained the proportions set out by Ibn Muqla. It shared many characteristics with cursive script. For example, the spacing between the words was smaller, making the page looked cramped, and the variation in the width of the script. Broken cursive occasionally had small “v” shapes that connected letters, but its most distinctive feature was the general rounded forms. An example of standardized and free flowing broken cursive script in the 13th century can be seen in the work of Ibn Al-Bawwab, a pupil of Ibn Muqla22 (see Fig.6). Modern styles of rounded script that grew out of broken cursive include: Thuluth, Rayhan, Tawqi’, Muhaqqaq, Naskh, Nastaliq, Magribi script, Riqa’. CONCLUSION There are many suggested reasons for the canonization of round script, as some cited changes in the tools and materials, while others suggested