Virginia Commonwealth University VCU Scholars Compass Theses and Dissertations Graduate School 2009 A Matter of National Concern: The Kennedy Administration and Prince Edward County, Virginia Brian Lee Virginia Commonwealth University Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarscompass.vcu.edu/etd Part of the History Commons © The Author Downloaded from https://scholarscompass.vcu.edu/etd/1877 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at VCU Scholars Compass. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of VCU Scholars Compass. For more information, please contact [email protected]. © Brian E. Lee, 2009 All Rights Reserved A MATTER OF NATIONAL CONCERN: THE KENNEDY ADMINISTRATION AND PRINCE EDWARD COUNTY, VIRGINIA A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Arts at Virginia Commonwealth University. by BRIAN E. LEE B.A., Rowan University, 2001 B.A., Thomas Edison State College, 2003 Director: DR. JOHN T. KNEEBONE ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR, DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY Virginia Commonwealth University Richmond, Virginia August 2009 iii Acknowledgement A Matter of National Concern is the product of more than two years of research and writing. In that time, many people have touched this project, and should be recognized. My thesis director, Dr. John T. Kneebone, served as a valuable resource on Virginia history, recommended secondary source material, provided detailed edits of the manuscripts, and always kept his office door and e-mail open to me. It has been a pleasure to study under a historian of his expertise, experience, enthusiasm, and, most importantly, his unassuming disposition. I could not have been better served than with Dr. John Kneebone as my thesis director. Completing the thesis committee are Dr. Emilie Raymond and Dr. Nelson Wikstrom. I thank them for taking on this project, and offering their expertise and recommendations. Virginia Commonwealth University has an excellent History Department. I have had the pleasure to study under Ted Tunnell, John Herman, Tim Thurber, John Kneebone, and Brian Daugherity. Brian J. Daugherity provided me with the initial encouragement to launch this project, offered research and stylistic advice, and introduced me to people who proved to be extremely helpful with this project – and there was nobody more valuable than Brian Grogan. iv Brian Grogan took me on as an intern for Mercy Seat Films’ production of They Closed Our Schools, the forthcoming documentary on the Prince Edward County school closings. Brian sent me on valuable research trips, has constantly sent me research materials, acted as a sounding board, and read my manuscript. Brian Grogan has proven time and again that he is the resource on the Prince Edward County school crisis. More importantly, he has become a good friend. Dr. Edward H. Peeples, Jr. wrote his master’s thesis on Prince Edward County when the schools were closed, and served as a volunteer in a recreation program for the locked out children. Ed Peeples opened his private papers to me and offered encouragement throughout this project. Dr. James H. Hershman, Jr. sent me research materials, provided his years of insight into massive resistance, and has read portions of the manuscript, proving valuable as fact checker. Nicholas Katzenbach provided me with an advance copy of his book, Some of It Was Fun (2008), read portions of my manuscript, and answered all my e-mail queries. St. John Barrett, Everett Berryman, Jr., and William J. vanden Heuvel all sat down for formal interviews, providing me with valuable insight. St. John Barrett, William C. Battle, William J.vanden Heuvel, Lee C. White, and Harris Wofford – all members of the Kennedy Administration – took the time to answer my phone calls. Louis Briel shared his account of Robert F. Kennedy’s visit to Hampden-Sydney College. v The following archivists and librarians were especially helpful: Stephen Plotkin, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library; Mark Lenker and Lydia Williams, Longwood University; James Gwin, University of Richmond; Lucious Edwards, Virginia State University; Donald Davis, American Friends Service Committee Archives; and the countless other archivists, librarians, and interns at George Washington University, the Library of Virginia, the National Archives, the University of Virginia, and Virginia Commonwealth University. Also, Harry F. Byrd, Jr. granted me permission to look through his father’s papers at the University of Virginia. The John F. Kennedy Presidential Library awarded me a Kennedy Research Grant to pay my expenses for a week of research in Boston. That research was the cornerstone of this project. I would like to thank the selection committee, and the individuals who wrote me a letter of support: Brian Grogan, Dr. John Kneebone, Dr. Tim Thurber, and Lacy Ward, Jr., director of the Robert R. Moton Museum. Several people outside of my thesis committee have read portions of the manuscript and provided me with feedback. They include: Brian Daugherity, Brian Grogan, Jim Hershman, Jenn Holliday, Nicholas Katzenbach, Bill Lee, Bill Lee, Jr., Diane Lee, Mark Lenker, and Evelyn Ziennker-Lee. Most importantly, my family made tremendous sacrifices to help me finish this project. My parents, Bill and Diane Lee, provided an invaluable babysitting service to permit me the time to research and write. My wife, Evelyn Ziennker-Lee, has showed patience while I have often been physically away on research excursions or mentally absent, distracted in 1960s Southside Virginia. Evelyn has been a great sounding board and vi my first proofreader, a great wife, and an even better mother. Finally, my children – Evie, AJ, and Alexis – have and will always be my inspiration. vii Table of Contents Page Acknowledgements............................................................................................................ iv Abbreviations ..................................................................................................................... x List of Tables ................................................................................................................... xii Who’s Who ..................................................................................................................xiii Chapter Prologue A Dark Spot in the Free World.......................................................................... 1 May 11, 1964................................................................................................ 5 A New Frontier........................................................................................... 14 1 Save Us From Ourselves................................................................................. 19 The Southside Virginia Aristocracy ........................................................... 21 No Compromise with Principle .................................................................. 31 Private Schools Appear to be the Only Answer ......................................... 42 WE NEED HELP ....................................................................................... 50 2 Executive Action............................................................................................. 64 Moral Authority.......................................................................................... 66 A National Problem.................................................................................... 73 Sit-in On Congress...................................................................................... 77 More and More Into It ................................................................................ 81 We Will Move ............................................................................................ 84 The Sharpest Setback.................................................................................. 90 viii No Conclusions Whatsoever .................................................................... 100 3 On Some Sort of Treadmill........................................................................... 108 Problems for the Parents........................................................................... 110 A Towering Obligation............................................................................. 114 Opportunity and Obligations .................................................................... 120 Who is Responsible? ................................................................................ 126 4 Free Schools.................................................................................................. 141 A Case of Great Importance ..................................................................... 143 To Find a Solution .................................................................................... 147 Profiles in Courage ................................................................................... 155 See What Could Be Done......................................................................... 161 Boycott for Freedom................................................................................. 167 Prince Edward Free School Association .................................................. 172 A Task of Herculean Proportions ............................................................. 178 5 Let Us Continue ............................................................................................ 187 Abnegation of Our Plain Duty.................................................................