Renewable Energy in the California Desert Mechanisms for Evaluating Solar Development on Public Lands By Jesse Fernandes Natalie Flynn Samantha Gibbes Matthew Griffis Takahiro Isshiki Sean Killian Laura Palombi Nerissa Rujanavech Sarah Tomsky Meredith Tondro A project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science (Natural Resources and Environment) School of Natural Resources and Environment University of Michigan April 2010 Faculty Advisor: Professor Steven Yaffee ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to express our sincere gratitude to our funders, who made this project possible: The Wilderness Society and Educational Foundation of America We would like to recognize and thank the many individuals who selflessly contributed their time and expertise, especially Alice Bond of The Wilderness Society. This project would have been nothing without your input and support. Thank you also to our advisor Professor Steve Yaffee for your valuable insight and feedback throughout this project. Lastly, we would like to thank our families and loved ones for their tireless patience and support through the whole of this sixteen-month process. www.snre.umich.edu/ecomgt/recd i TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ iv LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. vi LIST OF MAPS ............................................................................................................. viii LIST OF ACRONYMS .......................................................................................................... ix EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................................ 1 CHAPTER 1 | INTRODUCTION AND METHODOLOGY ........................................................................... 7 Background .......................................................................................................... 7 Research Questions ................................................................................................ 9 Methodology ....................................................................................................... 11 Report Outline ..................................................................................................... 19 CHAPTER 2 | MANAGEMENT AND ECOLOGY OF THE CALIFORNIA DESERT .................................................... 23 Current Status of Development ................................................................................. 26 Management of the CDCA ........................................................................................ 26 Ecology of the California Desert ................................................................................ 31 Current Ecological Stressors ..................................................................................... 37 CHAPTER 3 | UTILITY-SCALE SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES ........................................................................ 45 Solar Technologies ................................................................................................ 45 Cooling Systems ................................................................................................... 51 Key Considerations of Developers .............................................................................. 54 CHAPTER 4 | POLICIES PROMOTING UTILITY-SCALE SOLAR DEVELOPMENT ON PUBLIC LANDS ................................ 57 Economic Drivers of Utility-Scale Solar Development ....................................................... 57 Policies Affecting Siting of Utility-Scale Solar Development on Public Land ............................ 66 Can Distributed Generation Eliminate the Need for Utility-Scale Solar Development? ................ 70 The Future of Utility-Scale Solar Development in California ............................................... 77 CHAPTER 5 | SITE-LEVEL SOLAR DEVELOPMENT AND ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS ................................................. 81 Site Development and Ecological Impacts ..................................................................... 81 Grading, Hydrological Modification, and Vegetation Removal ............................................. 82 Perimeter Fencing ................................................................................................ 92 Roads and Transmission Lines ................................................................................... 95 Facility Location and Placement ................................................................................ 98 CHAPTER 6 | LANDSCAPE-LEVEL SOLAR DEVELOPMENT AND ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS ......................................... 103 Land Use Efficiency .............................................................................................. 103 Water Use Efficiency ............................................................................................ 110 Solar Development Impacts: Species Case Studies .......................................................... 118 CHAPTER 7 | SPATIAL IMPACTS............................................................................................ 131 Ecological Impact Analyses: Defining the Scope ............................................................ 133 Ecological Impact Analyses: Sensitive Habitat ............................................................... 136 Ecological Impact Analyses: Transmission and Grading Disturbance ..................................... 154 Visual Impact Analysis ........................................................................................... 159 Conclusions ........................................................................................................ 169 CHAPTER 8 | SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACT ANALYSIS .......................................................................... 171 The Socioeconomic Impacts of Oil and Gas and Wind Energy Development ............................ 172 The Socioeconomic Impacts of Nevada Solar One on Boulder City: A Case Study ..................... 178 Utility-Scale Solar Development and Job Creation ......................................................... 186 Predicting the Impacts of Future Solar Facilities ........................................................... 190 ii Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 195 CHAPTER 9 | COMMUNITY ATTITUDES ..................................................................................... 197 Stakeholder Survey............................................................................................... 198 Attitudes Toward Utility-Scale Solar Development ......................................................... 199 Grouped Sample Results ........................................................................................ 203 Analysis of Open-Ended Questions ............................................................................. 204 Stakeholder Perceptions and Study Findings ................................................................. 207 Information Gaps and Sources ................................................................................. 212 Summary ........................................................................................................... 214 CHAPTER 10 | DECISION-MAKING PROCESS................................................................................ 217 Permitting Processes for Solar Development ................................................................ 217 Evaluation of the BLM Right-of-Way Process for Solar Facilities ......................................... 227 Analysis of Alternative Processes .............................................................................. 239 CHAPTER 11 | RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................................................ 245 Recommendations for the BLM ................................................................................. 245 Recommendations for Supporting Continued Growth of Distributed Generation in California ...... 265 Recommendations for Future Research ....................................................................... 266 APPENDIX A | STAKEHOLDER SURVEY ...................................................................................... 271 APPENDIX B | UTILITY-SCALE SOLAR PROJECTS IN CALIFORNIA ............................................................ 285 APPENDIX C | ROAD ESTIMATES SUMMARY TABLE BY PROJECT ............................................................. 287 APPENDIX D | LAND USE EFFICIENCIES FOR INDIVIDUAL PROJECTS ......................................................... 289 APPENDIX E | SPATIAL ANALYSIS PROCESSING STEPS ...................................................................... 297 Appendix E1 | Standard Data Processing ..................................................................... 297 Appendix E2 | Defining the Scope ............................................................................. 300 Appendix E3 | Ecology Numerical Scores ..................................................................... 303 Appendix E4 | Sensitive Habitat Processing ................................................................. 307 Appendix E5 | Transmission and Grading Disturbance Processing ........................................ 328 Appendix