University of Alberta People and Fish in Fiji: an ethnobiological study of a coral reef ecosystem by Andrew Ross Gordon A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Department of Anthropology ©Andrew Ross Gordon Fall 2010 Edmonton, Alberta Permission is hereby granted to the University of Alberta Libraries to reproduce single copies of this thesis and to lend or sell such copies for private, scholarly or scientific research purposes only. Where the thesis is converted to, or otherwise made available in digital form, the University of Alberta will advise potential users of the thesis of these terms. The author reserves all other publication and other rights in association with the copyright in the thesis and, except as herein before provided, neither the thesis nor any substantial portion thereof may be printed or otherwise reproduced in any material form whatsoever without the author's prior written permission. Examining Committee Supervisor: Gregory Forth, Anthropology Committee Member: Kathleen Lowrey, Anthropology Committee Member: Jane Samson, History and Classics People and Fish in Fiji an ethnobiological study of a coral reef ecosystem ABSTRACT. -- People are active participants in coral reef ecosystems. This ethnobiology study considers and contrasts folkbiological knowledge of people living in two groups of artisanal fishing villages in Kadavu Province, Fiji. The high level of biological diversity on the Astrolabe Reef provides insights into folk categorization and classification methods that include colour, shape, size, physical features, and habits of certain reef fish and marine animals. Surveying large numbers of experts and novices on defined groups of creatures yields more depth and range of responses allowing higher confidence levels in response accuracy. A comparison of the data with Berlin’s (1992) proposed principles yields mixed results. Sea cucumbers have high ecological salience and their identification requires attention to the affect of two centuries of trade on Fijian society. Effective ethnobiological research provides productive options to contribute to coral reef sustainability programs with long term benefits for local people and marine life. Key words: Kadavu, naming and classification of fish, coral reef ethnobiology. Preface This study is about, by, and for the people of several villages on the Ono Channel between Kadavu and Ono Islands in Fiji who live in a rich and unique environment, their vanua , that extends under the sea and out beyond the Great Astrolabe Reef; the fourth largest coral reef in the world. I first visited the area for two weeks in 1997, and returned to spend nine weeks here in 2009, learning of local people’s folkbiological knowledge of fish and marine animals in this high biological diversity environment. I provide a definition of the term ‘folkbiology’ in Section iii of the Introduction. This thesis reflects these people’s insights into innovative ways of perceiving biological environments and negotiating balances between established traditional ways of living and adjustment strategies for changing environmental circumstances and rapidly changing lifestyles. People are thinking about their environments in new ways as the weather patterns, which define daily life, change in ways that traditional knowledge does not anticipate. Elders and middle aged people speak of climate change often. Many homes are only a metre or two above current peak tide levels. We had two tsunami warnings in the short time I was there, which were uneventful in the Ono Channel, but were the first warnings that people could recall in decades. In December of 2009, after I left, cyclone Mitch hit the area hard, toppling century-old trees onto homes in Lagalevu village. I do not mean to overdramatize the topic, but people here are thinking about their environment in new ways. Fish stocks are under pressure and several conservation focused organizations have been working on sustainable coral reef management projects here over the last few years. At the same time technology and communication tools, such as cell phone service introduced in late 2008 and now cell- based internet service, change daily life in places where most people do not have electricity and cook their food with wood fires. In 2009, a young lady from down-island connects with a young Tiliva man using text messaging and eventually elopes with him, meeting him in person for the first time in the dead-of-night to leave her home village to settle in Tiliva village. The people of Tiliva respond enthusiastically with a four day and night yaqona party and a two day hangover. Life changes and stays the same. So what does all this have to do with ethnobiology? Much of this thesis is devoted to presenting the results of the ethnobiological research, and nomenclature collection, performed in relation to the work of other ethnobiologists and fieldworkers. I see this work as a starting point towards a better understanding for local people and those people interested in folkbiologies, to understand how people perceive and engage high diversity coral reef environments; using what Scott Atran and Douglas Medin (2008:3) refer to as a “distinct module of the mind that is associated with universal patterns of categorization and reasoning.” There are a number of ways that research of this nature can be productive and in each of the four main analytical chapters, I investigate a specific group of fish or marine animals in a different manner and suggest different uses for the research. Like any successful project, many people supported my efforts in the field, and getting ready to be there in the first place. I appreciate the support of the Fijian Government Ministries that approved the project. This research would not have been possible without the kind assistance and direction of Rogo, Tulala, La, and Isoa in Kadavu and Ono. I thank the leaders and people of Buliya, Lagalevu, Matasawalevu, Tiliva, Waisomo, Vabea, and friends from Nakasaleka and Narikosa who contributed their knowledge and time to this research, and their warm Fijian hospitality to me. Thank you to Cheryl, Justin, and their team for support of the diving and underwater photography, and concurring on our decision not to ‘wait out’ the tsunami warning underwater, as advised by officials unknown. I appreciate the generosity of time and information provided by academic colleagues including Eugene Anderson, Aporosa, Mark Calamia, Paul Geraghty, Sharon Jones, Ritsuko Kikusawa, Meredith Osmond, Andrew Pawley, and Matt Tomlinson. I thank the faculty and staff of the Department of Anthropology at the University of Alberta, and in particular, my supervisor, Gregory Forth, for providing the training, inspiration, encouragement, and scholarship support to allow this research to go forward. Contents Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 1 i) The general principles of Brent Berlin (1992) for ethnobiological classification ......................... 1 ii) Ethnobiological terminology and concepts referred to in this study .......................................... 2 iii) Terminology guide ...................................................................................................................... 4 iv) Outline of the thesis ................................................................................................................... 6 Chapter 1: Setting and background to the study ...................................................................................... 9 i) Introduction to Fiji’s Kadavu and Ono Islands ............................................................................ 9 ii) Kadavu Island Group: Physical location and getting around ....................................................... 9 iii) Ono Channel villages, the local people, and social interaction ................................................. 13 iv) Fijian languages, dialects, and communalects: an overview and linguistic setting for Kadavu and Ono Channel villages .................................................................................................................. 19 v) Language issues for fish names ................................................................................................ 23 vi) Establishing interpreters and communication .......................................................................... 24 vii) Reciprocity ............................................................................................................................... 28 Chapter 2: Research Methods ............................................................................................................... 30 i) Planning ................................................................................................................................... 30 ii) Interviews ................................................................................................................................. 33 iii) Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 35 iv) Summary .................................................................................................................................. 38 Chapter 3: Colour, Categories, and Confusing Fish ................................................................................