Notes and References 1 'The Great Educators' 1. A. N. Whitehead, Process and Reality: An Essay on Cosmology. 2 Plato 1. The Epinomis of Plato, trans. J. Harward, § 487. On the assumption that the Epinomis can be ascribed to Plato, see A. E. Taylor, Plato: The Man and His Work, pp. 497-8. All the succeeding quotations from Plato's writings are from Jowett's 1875 translation, and the references are to the marginal page numbers of that work. 2. For Greek education see Werner Jaeger, Paideia: The Ideals of Greek Culture, trans. G. Highet;H. I. Marrou,A History ofEducation in Antiquity, trans. G. Lamb; F. A. G. Beck, Greek Education, 450-350 B.C.; W. Barclay, Educational Ideals in the Ancient World. 3. § 313. 4. Protagoras, § 340. Cf. Euthydemus, § 277. 5. Protagoras, § 309. 6. Laches, § 186. 7. Protagoras was the first to accept payment (Protagoras, § 348): 'You proclaim in the face of Hellas that you are a Sophist or teacher of virtue or education and are the first that demanded pay in return.' His method of exacting payment - a form of payment by results - was as follows (Protagoras, § 328): 'When a man has been my pupil, if he likes he pays my price, but there is no compulsion; and if he does not like, he has only to go into a temple and take an oath of the value of the instructions, and he pays no more than he declares to be their value.' The result was, as reported by Socrates in the Meno, § 91: 'I know of a single man, Protagoras, who made more out of his craft than the illustrious Pheidias, who created such noble works, or any ten other statuaries. ' The sophists have been designated the founders of educational science: Jaeger, Paideia, vol. I, p. 295. 8. Laches, § 186. 248 Doctrines of the Great Educators 9. James Bowen, A History of Western Education, vol. I, The Ancient World, pp. 86-7; J. S. Mill in Barry Gross (ed.), Great Thinkers on Plato, pp.151-2. 10. Meno, § 92. 11. § 312. 12. See A. E. Taylor, Socrates, and R. W. Livingstone, Portrait of Socrates. 13. Metaphysics, § 1078, b. 14. § 216. 15. Cf. metaphor of midwife in Theaetetus, § 150; also Symposium, § 209. Cf. Jaeger, vol. II, p. 27: 'He [Socrates] is the greatest teacher in European history.' 16. Symposium, § 204. 17. Ibid., § 217. 18. Apology, § 31. 19. Ibid., § 33. 20. § 348. 21. Cf. Theaetetus, § 201: 'Knowledge is true opinion accompanied by a reason.' 22. How Gertrude Teaches her Children, Eng. trans. (London: Swan Sonnenschein, 1907) p. 46. Cf. p. 57. 23. Cf. for successful examples, J. Adams, Primer on Teaching (Edin­ burgh: T. & T. Clark, 1903) pp. 90-108; also Exposition and Illustration (London: Macmillan, 1909) pp. 80-2. 24. See R. S. Black, Plato's Life and Thought, or A. E. Taylor, Plato. 25. See R. C. Lodge, Plato's Theory of Education. 26. § 599. 27. § 644. 28. § 185. 29. § 45. 30. § 50. 31. § 339. 32. § 21. 33. §§ 325-6. 34. For a reconstruction of Plato's own upbringing see Graham Wallas, The Art of Thought (London: Jonathan Cape, 1926) p. 230. 35. The Works of Xenophon, trans. H. G. Dakyns (London: Macmillan, 1897) vol. III, pt i, pp. 226-7 and note. See also Jaeger, Paideia, vol. III, pp.175-7. 36. The modem name for the work. Plato's was Politeia, meaning 'state' or 'constitution', and thus a general treatise on government. See Bowen, Ancient World, p. 105. 37. W. Boyd, Plato's Republicfor Today. 38. Emile (Everyman ed.) p. 8. 39. Evolution of Theology in the Greek Philosophers (Glasgow: J. MacLehose & Sons, 1904) I 140. 40. Cf. Jaeger, Paideia, vol. I, pp. 102-4. 'All virtues are summed up in righteousness.' Also II 202. Notes and References 249 41. Cf. Aristotle, Politics, III 13: 'Justice has been acknowledged by us to be a social virtue.' 42. Cf. Rousseau, Emile, p. 202: 'It is true ... that we have a very imperfect knowledge of the human heart if we do not also examine it in crowds; but it is none the less true that to judge of men we must study the individual man, and that he who had a perfect knowledge of the inclinations of each individual might foresee all their combined effects in the body of the nation.' Also Jaeger, vol. II, p. 366: 'He [Plato] is founding politics upon ethics ... For Plato the perfect state is only the ideal frame of a good life.' 43. Robin Barrow, Plato, Utilitarianism and Education, p. 1. 44. Republic, § 369. 45. K. R. Popper, The Open Society and Its Enemies, p. 171; Barrow, Plato, p. 50. 46. Note that Plato presupposes an initial inequality. Cf. Aristotle, Politics, II: 'Similars do not constitute a state.' 47. Politics, 12. 48. Republic, §§ 369-72. 49. Ibid., § 373. 50. Ibid., § 372. 51. Lewis Campbell, Plato's Republic (London: John Murray, 1902) p.54. 52. Greek pseudos, a fable or myth, introduced to elucidate an argument, not as a deliberate lie. See Barrow, Plato, p. 130. 53. Republic, § 415. 54. Ibid., § 423. 55. Cf. Aristotle, Politics, II 5, 23: 'What will be the education, form of government, laws of the lower class Socrates has nowhere determined.' Cf., however, Republic, § 467. 56. Campbell, Plato's Republic, p. 65. 57. Ibid., p. 54. Plato refers to the workers as 'those whose natural talents were defective from the first, and whose souls have since been so grievously marred and enervated by their life of drudgery as their bodies have been disfigured by their crafts and trades'. Republic, § 495. 58. Barrow, Plato, p. 151. 59. Politics, 13. 60. Cf. Protagoras, § 322: 'For cities cannot exist, if a few only share in the virtues as in the arts.' Also Aristotle, Politics, III 15, and II 2. 61. Prolegomena to Ethics (OUP, 1899) § 207. 62. Republic, §§ 376-412. 63. Almost equivalent to the term Arts in a university curriculum. 64. Republic, § 410. Cf. passage from Protagoras quoted above. 65. Republic, § 376: ct. and contrast Aristotle, Politics, VII 15. 'The care of the body ought to precede that of the soul, and the training of the appetitive part should follow: none the less the care of it must be for the sake of the reason, and our care of the body for the sake of the soul. ' 66. Republic, § 377. 67. Cf. Aristotle, Politics" VII 17. 68. Republic, § 376. 250 Doctrines of the Great Educators 69. Ibid., § 378. 70. Ibid., 71. Barrow, Plato, p. 110. 72. Republic, § 380. 73. § 383. 74. § 386. 75. Republic, §§ 386-8. 76. § 389. Cf. the international morality in More's Utopia. 77. Republic, § 392. 78. Ibid., §§ 392-403. 79. § 395. 80. § 401. 81. § 401. Cf. Aristotle, Politics, VII 17: 'All that is mean and low should be banished from their sight.' Also B. Bosanquet, The Education of the Young in the Republic of Plato (CUP, 1904) p. 102, fn. 82. Republic, § 522. 83. Ibid., §§ 403-12. 84. § 404. 85. § 411. 86. § 412. 87. § 522. 88. § 536. 89. Republic, § 376. Here we have the beginnings of vocational selection and of selection board procedures. 90. Ibid., § 413. Not quite 'an education through perfect circumstances', as Lewis Campbell supposed, Plato's Republic, p. 73. 91. Republic, §§ 521-41. 92. Ibid., § 535. 93. § 487. 94. § 490. 95. § 521. 96. § 518. 97. See Jaeger vol. II, pp. 267-8 for description of Plato's philosopher. 98. Republic, § 523. 99. § 522. 100. § 525. 101. Republic, § 527 .. 102. Ibid., § 526. This argument is repeated in almost identical terms in the Laws, § 747: 'Arithmetic stirs up him who is by nature sleepy and dull, and makes him quick to learn, retentive, shrewd, and aided by art divine he makes progress quite beyond his natural powers.' 103. Republic, § 527. 104. Ibid., § 531. 105. E. C. Moore, What Is Education? (Boston and London: Ginn, 1915) ch. 3. It must be put to Plato's credit that in interpreting a faculty as a function (Republic, § 477) he avoided the 'faculty' doctrine which long retarded the development of psychology. 106. Republic, § 526. The idea of good, or 'the Form of the Good', is the Notes and References 251 ultimate principle in Plato's philosophy, at once the source of all being and of all knowledge. Cf. ibid., § 509. 107. Ibid., § 527. 108. Ibid. 109. § 530. In accordance with this principle the calculation of Neptune into existence by Adams and Leverrier would have been commended by Plato; the verification of its existence by actual observation would have merited his contempt. 110. Marrou, p. 371, translates music here by 'acoustics' - 'the science of mathematics introduced by Pythagoras, the study of the numerical structure of intervals and rhythms'. 111. Republic, § 531. 112. Ibid., § 533. In the Cratylus Plato defined the dialectician as 'he who knows how to ask questions and how to answer them'. In the Phaedrus he identifies dialectic with the process of division and generalisation, and he adds, Republic, § 537, 'For according as a man can survey a subject as a whole or not, he is or is not a dialectician.' 113. Republic, § 534. 114. Ibid., §§ 537-41. 115. § 536. The tests for philosophers include intelligence tests. The tests for the guardians are mainly temperament tests. 116. § 539. Cf. Aristotle, Ethics, 13: 'The young man is not a fit student of Politics. ' 117. Republic, § 540. 118. Ibid. Cf. §§ 451-7. 119. Ibid., § 457. The great waves or paradoxes in the construction of Plato's ideal state are: (1) the community of goods and of pursuits; (2) the community of wives and children; (3) summarised in the statement, 'Until kings are philosophers or philosophers are kings, cities will never cease from ill.' 120.