$VVHVVPHQWRQ 3HDWODQGV %LRGLYHUVLW\ DQG&OLPDWHFKDQJH Main Report Published By Global Environment Centre, Kuala Lumpur & Wetlands International, Wageningen First Published in Electronic Format in December 2007 This version first published in May 2008 Copyright © 2008 Global Environment Centre & Wetlands International Reproduction of material from the publication for educational and non-commercial purposes is authorized without prior permission from Global Environment Centre or Wetlands International, provided acknowledgement is provided. Reference Parish, F., Sirin, A., Charman, D., Joosten, H., Minayeva, T., Silvius, M. and Stringer, L. (Eds.) 2008. Assessment on Peatlands, Biodiversity and Climate Change: Main Report. Global Environment Centre, Kuala Lumpur and Wetlands International, Wageningen. Reviewer of Executive Summary Dicky Clymo Available from Global Environment Centre 2nd Floor Wisma Hing, 78 Jalan SS2/72, 47300 Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia. Tel: +603 7957 2007, Fax: +603 7957 7003. Web: www.gecnet.info; www.peat-portal.net Email: [email protected] Wetlands International PO Box 471 AL, Wageningen 6700 The Netherlands Tel: +31 317 478861 Fax: +31 317 478850 Web: www.wetlands.org; www.peatlands.ru ISBN 978-983-43751-0-2 Supported By United Nations Environment Programme/Global Environment Facility (UNEP/GEF) with assistance from the Asia Pacific Network for Global Change Research (APN) Design by Regina Cheah and Andrey Sirin Printed on Cyclus 100% Recycled Paper. Printing on recycled paper helps save our natural resources and minimise environmental degradation. Acknowledgements The Assessment on Peatlands, Biodiversity and Climate Change was initiated by the project on Integrated Management of Peatlands for Biodiversity and Climate Change implemented by Wetlands International and the Global Environment Centre with the support of UNEP- GEF, the governments of the participating pilot countries (China, Indonesia and the Russian Federation) and regions (ASEAN); as well as the Dutch and Canadian governments and a range of other organisations including the Asia-Pacific Network for Global Change Research (APN). Numerous experts on peatlands, biodiversity and climate change have contributed to the development of the assessment through contributing information and references and reviewing drafts. Contributors of photographs and illustrations including Olivia Bragg, Dan Charman, Viktor Gusev, Hans Joosten, Richard Lindsay, Tatiana Minayeva, Faizal Parish, Marcel Silvius, Andrey Sirin and Steve Zoltai are thanked. Contents Foreword by the Secretariat of the CBD i. Foreword by the United Nations Environment Program ii. Foreword by GEC and Wetlands International iv. Executive Summary v. List of Authors xii. Glossary xiv. List of Figures xvi. List of Tables xx. Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1 Rationale for the Assessment 1 1.2 Purpose of the Assessment 4 1.3 Outline of the Assessment 6 1.4 Process of preparation of the Assessment 6 1.5 Scope and limitations 6 Chapter 2: What are peatlands? 8 Summary points 8 2.1 Definition 8 2.2 Peatland characteristics 9 2.3 Peat formation 10 2.4 Peatland distribution 11 2.5 Peatland ecology and peatland types 13 References 17 Chapter 3: Peatlands and people 20 Summary points 20 3.1 Human – peatland interactions 20 3.2 Benefits of peatlands 21 3.2.1 Regulation functions (ecosystem services) 22 3.2.2 Production functions 23 3.2.3 Carrier functions 26 3.2.4 Information functions 27 3.3 Peatlands and livelihoods 28 3.4 The root causes of human impacts on peatlands 30 3.5 Conflicts and wise use 33 References 37 Chapter 4: Peatlands and past climate change 39 Summary points 39 4.1 Climate and peatland characteristics 39 4.2 Past climate variability and peatland distribution 42 4.3 Peatland archives of past climate change 46 4.4 Peatland responses to past climate change 48 4.5 Peatland feedbacks to climate change 52 4.6 Recent changes in climate and peatland responses 53 References 56 Chapter 5: Peatlands and biodiversity 60 Summary points 60 Introduction 60 5.1 Peatland biodiversity: what makes peatlands different? 60 5.1.1 Peatlands and the biodiversity concept 62 5.1.2 Peatlands as habitats with specific features 63 5.1.3 Specific features of peatland biodiversity on the species level 65 5.1.4 Specific features of peatland biodiversity on the population level 66 5.1.5 Specific features of peatland biodiversity on the ecosystem level 67 5.1.6 The specific role of peatlands in biodiversity maintenance 71 5.2 The taxonomic biodiversity of peatland 73 5.2.1 Microorganisms and lichens 73 5.2.2 Bryophytes and vascular plants 75 5.2.3 Invertebrates 77 5.2.4 Vertebrates 78 5.3 Human impacts on peatland biodiversity 80 References 91 Chapter 6: Peatlands and carbon 99 Summary points 99 6.1 Peatlands and carbon stock 99 6.2 Carbon accumulation in peatlands 104 6.3 Carbon losses from peatlands 105 6.4 Human impact on peatland carbon 107 References 111 Chapter 7: Peatlands and greenhouse gases 118 Summary points 118 7.1 GHG related to peatlands 118 7.2 Net peatland impact on GHG radiative forcing of the climate 119 7.3 Ecological and environmental control of GHG emission from peatlands 121 7.3.1 General 121 7.3.2 Carbon dioxide 123 7.3.3 Methane 124 7.3.4 Nitrogen oxide 126 7.4 GHG flux rate in natural peatlands 126 7.5 Human influence on GHG flux from peatlands 129 References 133 Chapter 8: Impacts of future climate change on peatlands 139 Summary points 139 8.1 Future climate change scenarios 139 8.2 Impacts of climate change on peatlands 143 8.2.1 Effects of increasing temperatures 143 8.2.2 Effects of precipitation changes 145 8.2.3 Hydrological changes 146 8.2.4 Changes in permafrost and snow cover 149 8.2.5 Sea level rise 150 8.2.6 Carbon dioxide fertilization 151 8.2.7 Other impacts of climate change on peatlands 151 References 152 Chapter 9: Management of peatlands for biodiversity and climate change 155 Summary points 155 9.1 Protection and rehabilitation of peatlands 156 9.1.1 Protection of remaining peatlands 156 9.1.2 Fire prevention and control 157 9.1.3 Rehabilitation of degraded peatlands 158 9.2 Modification of peatland management strategies 161 9.2.1 Improved water management 161 9.2.2 Modification of agricultural practices 163 9.2.3 Modification of livestock management on peatlands 165 9.2.4 Modification of forestry practices 166 9.2.5 Modification of Peat extraction 168 9.3 Integrated management of peatlands 169 9.4 Peatlands in relation to policy processes 170 9.4.1 Peatlands and policy 170 9.4.2 Addressing root causes and enhancing implementation mechanisms 171 9.4.3 New emerging innovative options 172 9.4.4 The need for local policy embedding of innovative mechanisms 174 9.4.5 Harmful subsidies, policies and taxes 176 9.4.6 Synergy between conventions to develop integrated policy frameworks 177 Conclusion 177 References 177 Foreword by the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity The seventh meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), held in Malaysia in 2004, welcomed the proposed Assessment on Peatlands, Biodiversity and Climate Change. It is with great pleasure to see this significant undertaking present its final conclusions. The Assessment has demonstrated the importance of the biodiversity associated with these ecosystems, the services they provide and their critical role in sustaining livelihoods, especially in tropical areas. The role of peatlands in greenhouse gas regulation has also been clearly articulated. We now need to raise the profile of these ecosystems in the debate on linkages between wetlands, biodiversity and climate change for the conclusions drawn in this assessment demonstrate one of the clearest opportunities for win-win outcomes. We have already moved in this direction. The twelfth meeting of the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice, held in Paris in July 2007, noted the importance of the outcomes of this assessment and requested that the Secretariat of the CBD, in collaboration with the secretariats of relevant multilateral environment agreements and other relevant partners, review opportunities for further action to support the conservation and sustainable use of the biodiversity of tropical forested peatlands, as well as other wetlands, and to report on progress to the ninth meeting of Conference of the Parties in Bonn in May 2008. These concrete steps demonstrate that at Convention level we are serious about paying attention to the issues identified. But the most important need is for this progress to be reflected in real changes to the policies, management and use of peatlands on the ground. The Assessment has helped put these important ecosystems on the map, addressed the important issues and identified the responses that are needed. I would like to thank all of the people involved in contributing to this assessment. I have every confidence that it will make a major difference to improving the long-term sustainability of peatlands and therefore go down in history as a significant contribution towards the achievement of the 2010 biodiversity target. Ahmed Djoghlaf Executive Secretary Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) i Foreword by the United Nations Environment Programme Climate change is emerging as the defining political, as well as environmental, concern of our era. But, while emerging issues, such as avoided deforestation, are increasingly on the agenda, peatlands have been largely left out of formal negotiations under such instruments as the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and its associated Kyoto Protocol, as well as the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Tropical peat swamps, boreal forests and arctic permafrost regions, as well as temperate bogs, are a true global heritage, occurring in more than 180 countries. Although they cover only 3 percent of the land area, they store nearly 30 per cent of all global soil carbon.