An Afrocentric Exploration of South Africa’s Homeland Policy with Specific Reference to Vhavenḓa Traditional Leadership and Institutions, 1898-1994 by Theodore Nkadimeng Mahosi Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in History in the Faculty of Humanities (School of Social Sciences) at the UNIVERSITY OF LIMPOPO Supervisor: Prof. K.B. Shai Co-supervisor: Dr. A.V. Dhliwayo 2020 TABLE OF CONTENTS Declaration i Dedication ii Acknowledgements iii Abstract v List of abbreviations vi Chapter 1 1 Contextual Orientation of the Study 1 1.1 Background and Motivation 1 1.2 Research Problem 3 1.3 Operational Definition of Concepts 4 1.3.1 Apartheid 4 1.3.2 Homeland Policy 5 1.3.3 Vhuhosi 5 1.3.4 Ethnic identity 6 1.4. Literature Review 6 1.4.1 The concepts leader and leadership 6 1.4.2 Leadership versus power, authority and legitimacy 9 1.4.3 Traditional polities and the nature of traditional leadership 16 1.4.4 Ethnicity and ethnic identity 17 1.4.5 The relationship between the church and the state 17 1.4.6 The nature of power relations within South Africa’s ethnic homelands Bantustan Policy 18 1.4.7 The challenge to the legitimacy of Vhavenḓa traditional leadership 19 1.4.8 The influence of modern bureaucracy and modern economy 19 1.5. Role of Theory in the Study 20 1.6. Purpose of the Study 21 1.6.1 Aim of the study 21 1.6.2 Research objectives 21 1.7. Research Methodology 21 1.7.1 Research design 22 1.7.2 Sampling 22 1.7.3 Data Collection 23 1.7.4 Data Analysis 23 1.7.5 Quality Criteria 24 (a) Credibility 25 (b) Transferability 25 (c) Dependability 25 (d) Confirmability 26 1.8. Significance of the Study 26 1.9. Ethical Considerations 26 1.9.1 Ethical clearance to conduct the study 26 1.9.2 Voluntary participation and informed consent 27 1.9.3 Avoiding harm 27 1.9.4 Anonymity and confidentiality 27 1.9.5 Plagiarism 27 1.9.6 Language 27 1.9.7 Respect and dignity 28 Chapter 2 29 The Nature of the Relationship between the South African Government and Traditional Leadership with Specific Reference to Vhavenḓa Vhuhosi on the Eve of Apartheid 29 2.1 Introduction 29 2.1.1 African traditional leadership and authority: from pre-colonial times to the colonial period 30 (a) Traditional legitimacy 33 (b) Legal-rational legitimacy 33 (c) Charismatic legitimacy 33 2.1.2 Clarification of concepts: Vhavenḓa, Venḓa and kingship 53 (a) Thovhele/ Thovhela 59 (b) Khosikhulu/ mahosimahulu (pl.) 61 (c) Khosi/ mahosi (pl.) 61 (d) Gota/magota (pl.)/ khosana or vhamusanda 61 (e) Mukoma/ vhakoma (pl.) 62 2.2 From the reign of Makhado to the defeat and subjugation of Aḽilali Phophi Mphephu 63 2.3 The Three Main Mahosi of Vhavenḓa at the Close of the 19th Century 68 2.4 The Nature, Uniqueness and Diversity of Vhuhosi of Vhavenḓa 69 2.4.1 Vhuhosi and the administration of the land: Economic responsibilities 74 2.4.2. Religious responsibilities of mahosi 77 2.4.3 Missionaries and mahosi 77 2.4.4. Mahosi and their role in legal matters 81 2.5 The Natives Land Act (Act No. 27 of 1913) and Vhuhosi of Vhavenḓa on the Eve of Apartheid: From Overseer and Controller to Supervisor 83 2.6 Conclusion 88 Chapter 3 91 The Development of Ethnic Identity within South Africa’s Homeland System: The Case of Vhavenḓa Ethnic Identity 91 3.1 Introduction 91 3.2 A Discussion of Identity 94 3.2.1 A word on the ethnic 102 3.2.2 Ethnicity and ethnic identity 104 3.2.3 A look at the ethnic group and tribe 109 3.3 Vhavenḓa: To be Homogenous or not to be Homogenous 118 (a) Vhanyai 122 (b) Vhambedzi 123 (c) Vhaṱavhatsindi 123 (d) Vhaḽea/ Vhaḽeya 123 (e) Vhaṱwanamba 123 (f) Vhasenzi/ Masingo 123 (g) Vhalemba 123 (h) The Mphaphuli’s of Ndebele origin 123 3.4 Vhavenḓa of United Kingdom of Thovhele Ṱhohoyanḓou: The Era of Disintegration, from Ramabulana to Mphephu 130 3.4.1 The emergence and regionalisation of various mahosi after the demise of Ṱhohoyanḓou: Towards the creation of tribes 136 3.4.2 From regionalisation to the ‘tribalisation’ of vhuhosi of Vhavenḓa 141 3.4.3 The ethicisation of Vhavenḓa and the various mahosi 144 3.5 Conclusion 145 Chapter 4 147 The Changing Power Relations between the South African Government and Mahosi within the Venḓa Homeland 147 4.1 Introduction 147 4.2 The Afrocentric Value of the Concept ‘Traditional’ 151 4.3 The Socio-political and Economic Organisation of Vhuhosi of Vhavenḓa 155 4.4 The Assault on African Value Systems: Tempering with Vhavenḓa Hierarchical Structures and Related Concepts 159 4.4.1 The aftermath of the Mphephu-Boer War of 1898-1899 and the enactment of the South Africa Act of 1909 167 4.4.1.1 The defeat of Aḽilali Mphephu vis-à-vis the question of taxation and land administration 170 4.4.1.2 The South Africa Act of 1909 and the establishment of the Union of South Africa in 1910: Implications to vhuhosi and institutions 173 4.5 The Legislative Process: The ‘Reserves’, ‘Tribalisation’, ‘Retribalisation’, and Self-government 177 4.5.1 The administration of land and establishment of Vhavenḓa Reserve: The Natives Land Act (Act No. 38) of 1913 and the Natives Development Trust Act (Act No. 38) of 1936 179 4.5.2 The establishment of the three-tier system of government: Diluting African value systems-based administration 185 4.5.2.1 The Native Administration Act (Act No. 38 of 1927) 185 4.5.2.2 The Bantu/Black Authorities Act of 1951: The establishment of apartheid administrative authorities within the homeland policy 189 (a) Community councils and/or tribal authorities 194 (b) The regional authorities 198 (c) Territorial authorities 199 4.5.2.3 The Promotion of Bantu Self-government Act (Act No. 46 of 1959): The Road to homeland self-government 200 4.6 The Road to ‘Homeland Independence’: The Elections of 1973 and 1978 209 4.6.1 The Venda Constitution Act of 1979 and vhuhosi 213 4.6.2 Application of the Venda Constitution Act 214 4.7 The Missionaries within the Eurocentric Colonial Conundrum 217 4.8 Conclusion 223 Chapter 5 224 The Impact of Homeland Policy on the Internal Relations among Mahosi of Vhavenḓa vis-à-vis Internal Tensions within the Homeland 224 5.1 Introduction 224 5.2 The Homeland Policy and the Internal Relations within Vhuhosi 225 5.2.1 Patrick Mphephu’s powers as homeland ‘president’: A trump card for vhuhosi internal relations 226 5.2.2 Patrick Mphephu’s short journey from one-party state to his death 230 5.2.3 The plight of the unemployed Vhavenḓa masses dumped in the homeland 232 5.3 The Influence of the Homeland System on Vhuhosi Affairs 235 5.3.1 The Land question: Dispossession, forced removals, taxation and labour 235 5.3.1.1 The influence and relevance of Vhavenḓa maxims to the homeland system 236 5.3.1.2 The forced removal of Vatsonga from Venḓa and ethnic identity 237 5.3.1.3 The Manenzhe community’s experience with forced removal 238 5.3.1.4 Forced removals and the elevation of some magota into vhuhosi 239 5.3.1.5 Khosi Mashau and the establishment of Swiss Mission Station: The Maluleke community of Valdezia Mission versus Mashau community 241 5.3.1.6 The removal of Shehe/Ramaru Community from Shehe, present Elim 242 5.3.1.7 The imposition of Davhana in the land of the Nengwekhulus: The comedy of homeland policy of ‘independent headmanship’ 242 5.3.1.8 The Masakonas assume jurisdictional authority over Magoro clan 244 5.4. The Challenge of Respecting the Essence of Customary Law of Succession 245 5.4.1 Khosi Ratshimphi Tshivhase versus Ratshialingwa Tshivhase 248 5.4.2 The Sinthumule succession saga, 1939-1942: Piet Dzhombere Sinthumule versus his half-brother George Mukhuḓwana Sinthumule 251 5.4.3 Makuya versus Makuya: Tension over succession to vhuhosi 253 5.4.4 ‘President’ Frank Ravele’s promotion of magota to vhuhosi 255 5.5 The Question Challenge of the Place of Vhuhosi and Institutions in the Democratic South Africa: The New Constitution and Internal Relations 256 5.6 Conclusion 258 Chapter 6 261 The Impact of Homeland Policy on Vhavenḓa’s Cultural Conception of Royalty and Governance 261 6.1 Introduction 261 6.2 Royalty, Governance and Absenteeism: Patrick Mphephu’s Yoke of Dualism and Favouritism 266 6.3 Traditionalism, the Youth and Students within the Venḓa Homeland 271 6.3.1 The road to the watershed 16 June 1976 Protests: Its bearing on Vhavenḓa youth and student politics 273 6.3.2 The 1977 Youth and Student March within the ‘RoV’ 276 6.3.3 Vhavenḓa clergy and their call to action to oppose apartheid and Venḓa’s road to ‘independence’ 281 6.3.4 The United Democratic Front (UDF) and the changing political landscape in Venḓa: The ‘RoV’s gradual demise, 1983-1991 283 6.4 The ‘RoV’ as the Epicentre of the Brutality and Ruthlessness of Ritual Murder: Its Politicisation as the ‘RoV’s Death-knell 292 6.4.1 The impact of the upsurge of ritual murder cases within the ‘RoV’ 295 6.4.2 The outbreak and spread of cases of witch-hunting and witch-burning: The gradual demise of the power of mahosi within the ‘RoV’ 298 6.4.3 The Importance of the formation of CONTRALESA 303 6.5 The Challenge of Integrating Mahosi into the New South Africa 306 6.6 Conclusion 314 Chapter 7 317 General Conclusion(s) 317 7.1 Summary of the findings 317 7.1.1 The Nature of the Relationship between the South African Government and vhuhosi of Vhavenḓa on the Eve of Apartheid 317 7.1.2 The Development of Ethnic Identity within South Africa’s Homeland System: The Case of Vhavenḓa Ethnic Identity 321 7.1.3 The Changing Power Relations between the South African Government and Mahosi within the Venḓa Homeland 323 7.1.4 The Impact of Homeland Policy on the Internal Relations among Mahosi