Battles for Indigenous self-determination in the neoliberal period: a comparative study of Bolivian Indigenous and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples’ resistance. Rachel Lorraine Evans A thesis submitted for the Masters of Research degree at Sydney University in 2019 Faculty of Social Sciences 1 Abstract ___________________________________________ This comparative study will analyse Bolivia’s revolutionary process and Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander resistance movements to assess the Indigenous empowerment model. It will seek to ascertain whether an exchange would benefit both struggles. Bolivian President Evo Morales, an Indigenous Aymara, is widely recognised as leading a fight against neoliberalism, with a ‘cultural, democratic revolution’. The country, with 42% of people identifying as Indigenous (Fontana 2013, para 3), appears to be formalising Indigenous land rights through a ‘plurinational constitution’ (Burbach, Fox, Fuentes, 2013, p. 80), within an anti-capitalist rubric. Other revolutionary governments in the region — Venezuela, Ecuador, Nicaragua, El Salvador and Cuba — are challenging neoliberalism, but Bolivia seems to be uniquely placed to showcase elements within an Indigenous self-determination model. In comparison, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities in Australia are a minority population of 2.8% (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2017, para 1), living within a settler colonial state, having survived British invasion of their lands. They have waged heroic battles for land rights and won 33% of their land back from the settler state (Altman, 2014, para 8). However, showing the strength of the colonial project, the majority of land to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders is in remote and arid lands not suitable for agricultural production. In addition to land rights achievements, through heightened levels of activism, First Nation communities have won battles for cultural space and self-governance bodies within ideological and politically colonialised spaces. This is despite having limited representational space within Australian government settings. Currently, it appears communities are under assault from a renewed wave of assimilation. In comparing battles for self-determination in Bolivia and Australia, this research will focus on struggles around the three pillars of a robust sovereignty model — land rights, cultural rights and self-governance structures. The time period for this study is the neoliberal period from the 1970s onwards, albeit with a focus on some seminal pre-1970s battles. Carried out with a participatory activist research methodology, this project aims to 2 consolidate scholarly relations between Indigenous resistance in both countries, in an effort to assist battles for self-determination. 3 Declaration by Author ___________________________________________ This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the body of the text. I have clearly declared the contribution by others to jointly-authored works that I have included in my thesis. have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis as a whole, including statistical assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional editorial advice, and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The content of my thesis is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of my Masters of Research higher degree candidature and does not include a substantial part of work that has been submitted to qualify for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution. I have clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any, have been submitted to qualify for another award. I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the Sydney University Library and, subject to the General Award Rules of The University of Sydney, immediately made available for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968. I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of that material. Where appropriate I have obtained copyright permission from the copyright holder to reproduce material in this thesis. 4 Acknowledgements _____________________________________________ I acknowledge the Gadigal people of the Eora nation upon whose land this research is written. This thesis was inspired by the heroism of activists and scholars, past and present, and in this, it is a collective endeavour. I am indebted to a range of people. Firstly, a big thank you to my hard-working supervisor, Victoria Grieves, who guided this thesis through its genesis. Her encouragement was critical, as were her offerings of cheese and beverages at particular junctures. Fernanda Penaloza, as an auxiliary supervisor, also provided crucial insights into comparative studies and has been a consistent source of support and guidance. I travelled to Bolivia in 2017 to undertake interviews. I am indebted to the contacts in Bolivia provided by Lisa MacDonald, Federico Fuentes, Coral Wynters and Jim McIIroy. I am forever thankful for the good company and stoic patience of Hannah Wykes, who accompanied me on the journey, despite having neither Spanish nor an overriding interest in Indigenous politics. Thanks to Mara Bonnaci and Adam Sharah for teaching me about anti- uranium battles and showing me the beauty of the Australian desert. Thank you too to Federico Fuentes whose electric talks about Bolivia and considered writing about the Andean nation, inspire this study. I was motivated to research Indigenous resistance by the indefatigable work of Wiradjuri warrior Uncle Ray Jackson, who was a comrade and a friend. Ray, who fought for justice for families devastated by murderous acts by police and prison officers, and a victim of the ‘Stolen Generations,’ himself, never gave up. He passed away in 2015; his last day spent sitting by the fire at the Redfern Tent Embassy, talking tactics with Aunty Jenny Munro. I also pay tribute to Aboriginal warrior woman Pat Eatock. Thanks too, to Raul Bassi, Ray Jackson’s passionate side-kick, who encouraged this research. Indeed, I want to thank all the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and Bolivian Indigenous warriors, whose lives have been savaged by the colonial project, but whose everyday resistance makes change. I am grateful to Farida Iqbal, a colleague who took time out of her life to debate my work and provide invaluable feedback. Thanks too, to Blair Vidovich, who provided analysis 5 on the project’s philosophical tenets. I would also like to acknowledge the support of friends and family who, despite being significantly less obsessive than me about the complexities of Indigenous activism, were generous with their feedback. Specifically, to family members, Roslyn, Naomi and Frances Evans who gave much-needed encouragement. Thanks to Laurel Mackenzie and Corey Green for providing me hide-away space and desks and to Donna Mulhearn and Martin Reusch for their Labyrinth bush retreat. Big gratitude to Katy Jenkins and her rainbow family – Maisie and Alfie - for their laughter and motivation. A heartfelt appreciation, too of Eila Vinwynn’s welcome sanctuary in the final years of this project. Finally, thank you to comrades Peter Boyle and Pip Hinman for giving me the time needed out from the daily needs of the struggle for this project. 6 Keywords _____________________________________________ Indigenous resistance, self-determination, decolonisation, Bolivia, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander, empowerment, revolution 7 Table of Contents ________________________________________________________________ Preliminary Pages 2 List of Abbreviations 9 Introduction 10 Chapter One Struggles for Indigenous land rights in Bolivia and Australia in the neoliberal phase 26 Chapter Two Songlines and memorias: battles over Indigenous culture in the fight for self-determination 44 Chapter Three Empowerment projects for self-determination: Self-governance battles in Bolivia and Australia under neoliberalism 68 Conclusion 97 Appendices 108 A.1. A snapshot of Indigenous held land 1788–2013 A.2. Indigenous land titling under three tenures A.3. National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Organisations A.4. Stand out Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander battles in the neoliberal phase A.5. Achievements of the Evo Morales-led government A.6. Interview questions with Indigenous community members and movement activists from Bolivia/Australia. A.7. Interview with Enrique Castana Ballivian May 25, 2016 A.8. Interview with Odalis Zuazo May 22, 2016 A.9. Interview with Ken Canning June 22, 2018 A.10. Interview with Pablo Regalsky May 27, 2016 A.11. Interview with Zachary Joseph Wone June 25, 2018. A.12. Richard Fidler Notes for Presentation ‘Plurinational state, indigenous autonomy in Bolivia’ Calgary June 1, 2016, Socialist Studies Conference, 2016, Calgary, Alberta References 240 8 Abbreviations ____________________________________________ AIOC Autonomous Indigenous Territory (Spanish: Territorio Autónomo Indígena AIOC) AMP Senior Elders (Spanish: Alcades Mayores Particulares) CIDOB Confederation of Indigenous Peoples of Bolivia (Spanish: Confederación de Pueblos Indígenas de Bolivia; formerly, Spanish: Confederación de Pueblos Indígenas del Oriente Boliviano or CIDOB) CONAMAQ National Council of Ayllus and Markas of Qullasuyu (Spanish: Consejo