AN EXAMINATION OF AN AFRICAN POSTCOLONIAL EXPERIENCE OF LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND IDENTITY: AMAKHOSI THEATRE AKO BULAWAYO, ZIMBABWE Violet B. Lunga B.A.(Hons.), University of Zimbabwe,l982 Grad. CE., University of ZimbabweJ987 UA., University of ZimbabweJ990 THESIS SUBMITIED IN PARTIAL FLKFKLJbfENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF Doctor of Philoçophy in the Faculty of Education O Violet B. Lunga 1997 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY October 1997 AU rights reserved. This work may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without permission of the author. National Library Bibliothèque nationale du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographie Services services bibliographiques 395 Wellington Street 395. rue Wellington ûttawaON K1AON4 Ottawa ON KIA ON4 Canada Canada The author has granted a non- L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive licence allowing the exclusive permettant à la National Library of Canada to Bibliothèque nationale du Canada de reproduce, loan, distribute or sell reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou copies of this thesis in microform, vendre des copies de cette thèse sous paper or electronic formats. la fome de microfiche/nlm, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique. The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriété du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d'auteur qui protège cette thèse. thesis nor substantial extracts fiom it Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels may be printed or otherwise de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés reproduced without the author's ou autrement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation. Canada ABSTRACT Can colonised peoples in Africa use languages of their colonisation without re-insaibing thev own colonisafion and/or losing their own languages and cultures? This is one of the questions at the centre of the debate about the use of English in postcolonial Mca. The debate is concerned with whether or not to use English to express Afncan cultural identities. Some critics reject English for its complicity in colonialism. In this argument, English is regarded as a threat to indigenous languages and cultures. On the other hand, some critics view English as a permanent' feature of postcolonial Africa and also as a language which connects Africa to the rest of the world. In this perspective English is useful for pragmatic purposes. Thus there is usually an either/or response to the question about English. For me, the answer lies in a both/and ewplanation. That is, in the use of both the colonial and indigenous languages. A both/and perspective allows for the exploration of the contradictions of postcolo~didentity. Using Amakhosi theatre of Bulawayo, Zimbabwe, 1 explore the way in which postcolonial identity in Zimbabwe takes shape at the intersection of the colonial and the indigenous languages. The spaœ where Engliçh and the indigenous language, here Ndebele, intersect is conceptualWd as a hybnd space. Exploring this space is useful for understanding colonial and postalonid experiences. The study is also necessary for understanding postcolonial agency, that is, the ways in which colonised people position themçelves in relation to the colonial experience and the ways they shape their own identities, cultures and languages. The dissertation illustrates the impulse of internalisaiion of colonial structures as accompanied by the interrogation of the colonial. Using Amakhosi plays, I question the idea of postcoloniai identity as a location of confusion, undecidedness and wealcness. Amakhosi illustrates postcolonial space as productive and creative and as a location where coloniseci people take charge of the formation of their identities, languages and cultures. The hybrid space is also conceptualised as an ambivalent spaœ, that is, as a space where English is challenged and accommodated simultaneously. The space also marks the assertion of Ndebele. But at same time Ndebele is asserted and reclaimed, it is also adapted and changed. The hybnd space announces a new language and new culture which is always being fonned and fabricated. As an educator 1 am interesteci in the rdevance of the hybrid space for the conception of a curriculum for Zimbabwe. 1 argue that a cunidum for postcolonial Zimbabwe will have to be hybrid, that is, it will have to incorporate the colonial and the indigene. Dedication Michelle Nkosinomsa, hanne S. Nothabo and Bradley S. Thando Lunga, for allowing me to pursue my dream away from home and doing without what you needed most. This work was written so that you will not forget. For our future is in our rememberhg. To my parents, R. E. Moyo and Martha Moyo, who have become my children's parents For your energizing love, support and trust. Firçt of al 1 must express my indebtedness to Dr. Dennis Sumara for helping me to find words to articulate what 1have wanted to Say. 1 thank him for setting me off ont0 an exciting path. 1 &O acknowledge his very rewarding aitical insightç into my work, his exceptional scholarship, human understanding, and codtment to academic excellence. 1 appreciate his critical feedback and genuine interest. 1 shaU always remember the countless conversations we had, out of which this work grew. Demis Sumara has never been too busy to listen to my concerns and to ask me good questions. Above al1 1 thank him sincerely for believing in my work. My gratitude also goes to Dr Suzanne de Castell whose aitical comments helped shape my initial ideas. To Dr. Kelleen Toohey, thank you for your contributions to my work. 1 wodd like to offer my heartfelt thanks to my 'sibare', Larry Kuehn for hiç constructive critique of the manuscript and for editing the work. 1 express my gratitude to Thokode Barbara Muthwa-Kuehn, my friend, wlleague and sister for her constant encouragement and prayers. Jn the absence of my mother, Thohziie nurtured and supported me in countless ways. 1 should also mention Robinah and Kennedy Matende who have becorne my family in Canada. 1 would also like to express my gratitude to my colleagues in Education graduate studies. 1 must single out Glen Brown for his tremendous reçourcefulness in the Ph. D office. My gratitude is extendeci also to Susan Gerofsky and family and Cdeste Schroeder for their coUegial support and encouragement. 1 express my sincere appreciation to Dr. Roland Case for his generous support in my graduate work at Simon Fraser university. I rernain indebted to my colleague and friend, Obgonnaya Oko Eledii, for his inspiring ideas, his encouragement and belief in my work. To Shir1ey Heap in the graduate studies office and to the staff in the Centre of Education and Technology, a special note of thanks for their patience and support. My heartfelt thanks go to my family in Zimbabwe for believing in me and for their constant support and loving encouragement. This dissertation would not have been written without my parents who gave birth to me and took care of my children in my absence. 1 thank my brother Dr. Stanley Moyo for leading the way, for his aitical insights into the work and for editing and sorting out my references. To Maureen, my sister and her family, a big thank you for king a 'small' mother to my children. To Mavis Sithernbiie, my sister, thank you for king a 'big' mother to my diildren. 1 would alço like to appreciate my younger brother John, for his encouragement and for king part of my famiiy. 1 wish to thank my dear huçband, Lameck, for setting me free to pursue my drearn and for offering me constant support and encouragement. I feel honoured to have worked briefly with Amakhosi ako Bulawayo. I am very grateful to them for allowing me to work with them. They are doing significant work in Zimbabwe. Umkhulu lumsebenzi. 1 would like to single out Cont Mhlanga for the hemendous leadership of Amakhosi productions. 1 sincerely thank Fortune Ruzungunde in Bulawayo, for supplying me with videos and numerous documents about Amakhosi. And most of all 1 thank îNkosi Yama Khosi, my Gd.Bayete! vii Table of Contents .. Approval ..................................................................................................................................... 11 .... Abstract ................................................................................................................................. 111-IV Dedication .................................................................................................................................. -v ... Acknowledgments .......................................................................................................... vi-vil1 Introduction: Mapping African Postcoloniality: Linguistic and Cultural Spaces of Hybridity ................................................................................................................ 1-36 Chapter 1: The Language Question: African Perspectives ......................................... 37-69 Chapter 2: Theatre. Language and Cdfiure ................................................................... 7û-93 Chapter 3: Making Tdentity in Hybrid spaces ........................................................... 94-167 Chapter 4: Resituating African expressive forms: Çongs and Dances in Amakhosi .................................................................................................... 14û-216 Chapter 5: Pedagogy for Third Spaces......................................................................... 217-249 Conclusion: Issues Revisited: Possibilities. Fears and Questions ........................ 250-259 References .......................................................................................................................