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This publication should be cited as: IRENA and IEA-PVPS (2016), “End-of-Life Management: Solar Photovoltaic Panels,” International Renewable Energy Agency and International Energy Agency Photovoltaic Power Systems. ABOUT IRENA IRENA is an intergovernmental organisation that supports countries in their transition to a sustainable energy future and serves as the principal platform for international co-operation, a centre of excellence and a repository of policy, technology, resource and financial knowledge on renewable energy. IRENA promotes the widespread adoption and sustainable use of all forms of renewable energy, including bioenergy, geothermal, hydropower, ocean, solar and wind energy, in the pursuit of sustainable development, energy access, energy security and low-carbon economic growth and prosperity. www.irena.org ABOUT IEA-PVPS The IEA, founded in November 1974, is an autonomous body within the framework of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) that carries out a comprehensive programme of energy co-operation among its member countries. The European Commission also participates in the work of the IEA. The IEA-PVPS is one of the collaborative research and development (R&D) agreements established within the IEA. Since 1993, participants in the PVPS have been conducting a variety of joint projects in the applications of PV conversion of solar energy into electricity. www.iea-pvps.org ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This publication was prepared by IRENA in collaboration with IEA-PVPS Task 12 with valuable input from Dr. Karsten Wambach (bifa Umweltinstitut, consultant). This report benefited from contributions and review from a panel of experts: Tabaré A. Currás (WWF International Global Climate & Energy Initiative), Zhang Jia (IEA-PVPS Task 12), Keiichi Komoto (IEA-PVPS Task 12), Dr. Parikhit Sinha (IEA-PVPS Task 12) and Knut Sanders (Ökopol). Valuable input was also received from Henning Wuester, Rabia Ferroukhi, Nicolas Fichaux, Asiyah Al Ali, Deger Saygin, Salvatore Vinci and Nicholas Wagner (IRENA). IRENA and IEA-PVPS would like to extend their gratitude to the Government of Germany for supporting this publication. AUTHORS IRENA: Stephanie Weckend IEA-PVPS: Andreas Wade, Garvin Heath DISCLAIMER The designations employed and the presentation of materials featured herein are provided on an “as is” basis, for informational purposes only, without any conditions, warranties or undertakings, either express or implied, from IRENA and IEA-PVPS, its officials and agents, including but not limited to warranties of accuracy, completeness and fitness for a particular purpose or use of such content. The information contained herein does not necessarily represent the views of the Members of IRENA and IEA-PVPS. The mention of specific companies or certain projects, products or services does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by IRENA and IEA-PVPS in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. The designations employed and the presentation of material herein do not imply the expression of any opinion on the part of IRENA and IEA-PVPS concerning the legal status of any region, country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of frontiers or boundaries. Shutterstock CONTENTS Glossary .............................................................................. 6 Figures, tables and boxes ............................................................... 7 Abbreviations ......................................................................... 9 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .......................................................... 11 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................. 19 2. SOLAR PV PANEL WASTE PROJECTIONS ............................... 23 2.1 Global solar PV growth ........................................................ 23 2.2 PV panel waste model ......................................................... 25 2.3 PV panel waste projections .................................................... 32 3. PV PANEL COMPOSITION AND WASTE CLASSIFICATION ........... 37 3.1 Panel composition ............................................................ 38 3.2 Waste classification ........................................................... 43 4. PV PANEL WASTE MANAGEMENT OPTIONS ........................... 47 4.1 Waste management principles for PV panels .................................... 47 4.2 Regulatory approach: European Union .......................................... 51 5. NATIONAL APPROACHES TO PV WASTE MANAGEMENT ............ 59 5.1 Germany: Mature market with EU-directed, PV-specific waste regulations .......... 59 5.2 UK: Young market with EU-directed, PV-specific waste regulations ................ 63 5.3 Japan: Advanced market without PV-specific waste regulations ................... 65 5.4 US: Established, growing market without PV-specific waste regulations ............ 69 5.5 China: Leading market without PV-specific waste regulations ...................... 70 5.6 India: Growing market without PV-specific waste regulations ...................... 72 6. VALUE CREATION FROM END-OF-LIFE PV PANELS ................... 75 6.1 Opportunities to reduce, reuse and recycle PV panels ............................ 75 6.2 Material supply and socio-economic benefits .................................... 85 7. CONCLUSIONS: THE WAY FORWARD ................................... 91 References ........................................................................... 94 5 END-OF-LIFE MANAGEMENT: SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS GLOSSARY Amorphous silicon Non-crystalline form of silicon formed using silicon vapour which is quickly cooled. Electrical and electronic The term electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) is defined as equipment designed for equipment use with a voltage rating not exceeding 1,000 Volts (V) for alternating current and 1,500 V for direct current, or equipment dependent on electric currents or electromagnetic fields in order to work properly, or equipment for the generation of such currents, or equipment for the transfer of such currents, or equipment for the measurement of such currents. Extended Producer Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) is an environmental policy approach in which Responsibility a producer’s responsibility for a product is extended to the post-consumer stage of a product’s life cycle. An EPR policy is characterised by (1) shifting responsibility (physically and/or economically; fully or partially) upstream towards the producers and away from governments and (2) the provision of incentives to producers to take into account environmental considerations when designing their products. Monocrystalline silicon Silicon manufactured in such a way that if forms a continuous single crystal without grain boundaries. Raw material Basic material which has not been processed, or only minimally, and is used to produce goods, finished products, energy or intermediate products which will be used to produce other goods. Pay-as-you-go and In a pay-as-you-go (PAYG) approach, the cost of collection and recycling is covered by pay-as-you-put market participants when waste occurs. By contrast, a pay-as-you-put (PAYP) approach involves setting aside an upfront payment of estimated collection and recycling costs when a product is placed on the market. Last-man-standing-insurance is an insurance product that covers a producer compliance scheme based on a PAYG approach if all producers disappear from the market. In that situation, the insurance covers the costs of collection and recycling. In a joint-and-several liability scheme, producers of a certain product or product group agree to jointly accept the liabilities for waste collection and recycling for a specific product or product group. Poly- or multicrystalline Silicon manufactured in such a way that it consists of a number of small crystals, forming silicon grains. Thin-film Technology used to produce solar cells based on very thin layers of PV materials deposited over an inexpensive material (glass, stainless steel, plastic). 6 FIGURES, TABLES AND BOXES FIGURES, TABLES AND BOXES FIGURES Figure 16 End-of-life PV panel waste for Japan to 2050 . 66 Figure 1 Approach to estimating PV panel waste ...23 Figure 17 Comparison of PV panel end-of-life scenarios for Japan .....................................66 Figure 2 Projected cumulative global PV capacity ...25 Figure 18 FAIS PV panel recycling system .............68 Figure 3 Two-step PV panel waste model ..........26 Figure 19 End-of-life PV panel waste volumes for the US Figure 4 Exponential curve fit of projection of PV panel to 2050 .......................................69 weight-to-power ratio (t/MW) ............27