Notes Introduction 1. MWt and MWe are common units of measure for the output of a nuclear reactor. MWt stands for megawatts of thermal output, while MWe means megawatts of electrical output. In a nuclear power plant, the fission chain reaction generates heat (thermal output), which creates steam to drive a turbine to generate electricity (electrical output). 1 The Nuclear Program of the Shah (1957–79) 1. Newton, David E., Nuclear Power, New York: Facts on File, 2006, p. 26. 2. Krige, John, “Atoms for Peace, Scientific Internationalism, and Scientific Intelligence,” Osiris, Vol. 21, no. 1, 2006, pp. 161–181. 3. Participating in the International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy held in Geneva on August 8–20, 1955, were more than 1,400 delegates from 73 different countries. Abraham, Itty, The Making of the Indian Atomic Bomb: Science, Secrecy and the Postcolonial State, London: Zed Books, 1998, p. 9. 4. Krige, “Atoms for Peace,” p. 29. 5. “Atoms for Peace Agreement with Iran,” The Department of State Bulletin, Washington, DC, Vol. 36, no. 927, 1957, p. 629, <http://www.archive.org/details/ departmentofstat3657unit>. 6. Most of the bilateral agreements proposed by the United States under the “Atoms for Peace” program included unclassified information on the design, construction, and commissioning of research reactors, in addition to the supply of a few kilo- grams of nuclear fuel and a starting allowance of about $350,000. 7. Sanjian, Ara, “The Formulation of the Baghdad Pact,” Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 33, no. 2, 1997, pp. 226–266. 8. McKay, H. A. C., “The Cento Institute of Nuclear Science in Tehran,” Nature, Vol. 186, no. 4724, May 1960, pp. 513–515. 9. Ibid.; Ghannadi-Maragheh, Mohammad, “Atomic Energy Organization of Iran,” World Nuclear Association Annual Symposium, London, September 4–6, 2002, <http://www.iranwatch.org/sites/default/files/iran-aeoi-worldnuclearassociation- 090402.pdf>. 220 ● Notes 10. Poneman, Daniel, Nuclear Power in the Developing World, London: Allen & Unwin, 1982, p. 84. 11. In the early 1970s, with an installed capacity of about 360 MWe, the Iranian electrical grid could not sustain the operation of even one nuclear reactor. Barzin, Nader, L’Iran Nucléaire, Paris: l’Harmattan, 2006, p. 20. 12. From 1956 to 1966, the Iranian population grew at an average rate of 3.1 per- cent, reaching 26 million. Azizi, Mohammad Mehdi, “The Provision of Urban Infrastructure in Iran: An Empirical Evaluation,” Urban Studies, Vol. 32, no. 3, April 1995, pp. 507–522. 13. Afkhami, Gholam Reza, The Life and Times of the Shah, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2009, p. 339. 14. US Embassy Tehran Airgram A-69 to State Department, “The Atomic Energy Organization of Iran,” May 11, 1977, declassified on June 25, 2008, <http:// www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb268/index.htm>. 15. Sobhe, Khosrow, “Educational Planning for Engineering Schools: A Study of Iran Between 1962 and 1982,” Higher Education, Vol. 12, no. 1, January 1983, pp. 61–76; Leslie, Stuart W., and Robert Kargon, “Exporting MIT,” Osiris, Vol. 21, no. 1, 2006, pp. 110–130. 16. “Nuclear Plan Started,” Kayhan International, December 19, 1972, p. 2, <http:// www.nti.org/media/pdfs/iran_nuclear.pdf?_=1316542527>. 17. Mahvi, Pascal, Deadly Secrets of Iranian Princes: Audacity to Act, Victoria, BC: Friesen Press, 2010, p. 51; Mahvi, Abolfath, “40-Year-Old Dream,” Iranian.com, January 6, 2009, <http://iranian.com/main/2009/jan/40-year-old-dream.html>. 18. Ibid. 19. In October 1963 Akbar Etemad received a Ph.D. in nuclear physics at the University of Lausanne. Two years later he returned to Iran where he worked at the Plan and Budget Organization, with particular responsibility to complete the construction of the Tehran Research Reactor. Besides teaching at the Tehran University, in 1973 he became rector of the new Abu-Ali Sina University in Hamadan. Milani, Abbas, Eminent Persians: The Men and Women Who Made Modern Iran, 1941–1979, New York: Syracuse University Press, 2008, p. 137; Patrikarakos, David, Nuclear Iran: The Birth of an Atomic State, London: I.B. Tauris, 2012, pp 16–19. 20. Barzin, L’Iran Nucléaire, pp. 70–72. 21. Ibid. 22. US Embassy Tehran Airgram A-69 to State Department, “The Atomic Energy Organization of Iran,” p. 3. 23. Afkhami, The Life and Times of the Shah, p. 359. 24. US Embassy Tehran Airgram A-69 to State Department, “The Atomic Energy Organization of Iran,” p. 7. 25. Afkhami, The Life and Times of the Shah, p. 345. 26. US Embassy Tehran Airgram A-69 to State Department, “The Atomic Energy Organization of Iran,” p. 7. 27. Afkhami, The Life and Times of the Shah, p. 346. 28. The “turnkey” agreements included the training of technicians in the functioning of the nuclear plants, the supply of nuclear fuel, and the creation of the Notes ● 221 infrastructures required to complete the facilities. The foreign suppliers had only to guarantee the participation of an Iranian partner in the projects. 29. Iran ratified the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons on February 2, 1970, finalizing the Safeguards Agreement with the IAEA on December 13, 1974. IAEA, “The Text of the Agreement between Iran and the Agency for the Application of Safeguards in Connection with the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons,” INFCIRC/214, December 13, 1974. 30. Office of Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs to Secretary of Defense, “Nuclear Energy Cooperation with Iran (U)—Action Memorandum,” June 22, 1974, declassified on August 10, 2008, <http://www. gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb268/doc02.pdf>. 31. US Embassy Paris cable 15305 to Department of State, “Interview with Shah,” June 24, 1974, declassified on December 3, 2005, <http://www.gwu.edu/~ nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb268/doc01a.pdf>. 32. US Embassy Tehran cable 5192 to Department of State, “Shah’s Alleged Statement on Nuclear Weapons,” June 25, 1974, declassified on May 30, 2005, <http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb268/doc01c.pdf>; US Embassy Tehran cable 5389 to Department of State, “Iran’s Intentions in Nuclear Matters,” July 1, 1974, declassified on May 30, 2005, <http://www.gwu.edu/~ nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb268/doc01d.pdf>. 33. Wohlstetter, Roberta, The Buddha Smiles: Absent-Minded Peaceful Aid and the Indian Bomb, Los Angeles: Pan Heuristics, 1977, p. 32; Pathak, Kanwal Kishore, Nuclear Policy of India: A Third World Perspective, New Delhi: Gitanjali Prakashan, 1980, p. 49; Perkovich, George, India’s Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on Global Proliferation, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001, p. 29. 34. IAEA, “Communication Received from Members Regarding the Export of Nuclear Material and of Certain Categories of Equipment and Other Material,” INFCIRC/209, September 3, 1974. 35. For example, an agreement signed between the Federal Republic of Germany and Brazil in 1975 provided the supply of eight reactors, a uranium enrichment plant, and a fuel reprocessing plant. Similar plants were included in other agreements defined by France with South Korea, Pakistan, and South Africa between 1975 and 1976. Krass, Allan S. et al., Uranium Enrichment and Nuclear Weapon Proliferation, New York: Taylor & Francis, 1983, pp. 203–257. 36. Poneman, Nuclear Power in the Developing World, p. 88; New York Times, June 28, 1974, p. 1, col. 1, in Lexis-Nexis, <http://www.lexis-nexis.com>. 37. Ibid. 38. Mahvi, Deadly Secrets of Iranian Princes, pp. 120, 491. 39. Mahvi, “40-Year-Old Dream.” 40. “Iran into Uranium in Big Way—Etemad,” Kayhan International, November 30, 1974, <http://www.nti.org/media/pdfs/iran_nuclear.pdf?_=1316542527>. 41. The reduction of Iran’s oil revenues in real terms derived from the devaluation of the US dollar. As for the Iranian inflation rate, it grew by 12.7 percent in 1975. Avery, Peter, G. R. G. Hambly, and C. Melville, eds., The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 7: From Nadir Shah to the Islamic Republic, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999, p. 67. 222 ● Notes 42. Poneman, Nuclear Power in the Developing World, pp. 91–92. 43. US Embassy Tehran, Airgram A-69 to State Department, “The Atomic Energy Organization of Iran,” p. 6. 44. The United States–Iran Joint Economic Commission, sponsored by the United States, was established after the OPEC crisis in 1973 to provide Washington with privileged access to the Iranian oil market and revenues. 45. “Summary of Developments in Secretary’s Absence,” May 30, 1974, in Digital National Security Archive, <http://nsarchive.chadwyck.com>. 46. NSC Under Secretaries Committee to Deputy Secretary of Defense et al., “US Nuclear Non-Proliferation Policy,” December 4, 1974, declassified on May 25, 2002, <http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb268/doc03.pdf>. 47. “Report of the NSSM 219 Working Group, Nuclear Cooperation Agreement with Iran,” April 1975, declassified on December 8, 1999, <http://www.gwu. edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb268/doc05a.pdf>; US Embassy Tehran cable 3437 to Department of State, “Draft Agreement on Atomic Energy,” April 15, 1975, declassified on July 5, 2006, <http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb268/ doc05b.pdf>. 48. For the official text of the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), see: IAEA, “Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons,” INFCIRC/140, April 22, 1970, <http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Infcircs/Others/infcirc140.pdf>. 49. Burr, William, “A Brief History of US–Iranian Nuclear Negotiations,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Vol. 65, no. 1, January 2009, pp. 21–34; Afkhami, The Life and Times of the Shah, p. 355. 50. Newton, Nuclear Power, p. 95. 51. Poneman, Nuclear Power in the Developing World, p. 87. 52. “Report of the NSSM 219 Working Group, Nuclear Cooperation Agreement with Iran,” p. 6. 53. Department of State Briefing Paper, “Peaceful Nuclear Cooperation,” May 1975, declassified on February 28, 1998.