Random selection in politics Lyn Carson and Brian Martin Published in 1999 by Praeger Publishers, Westport, CT Available for purchase from Praeger This is the text submitted to Praeger in February 1999. It differs from the published version in minor ways, including formatting, copy-editing changes, page numbering (100 pages instead of 161) and omission of the index. This version prepared August 2008 Contents 1. Introduction 1 2. Random selection in decision making 10 3. Direct democracy 26 4. Citizen participation without random selection 36 5. Citizen participation with random selection: the early days 43 6. Citizen participation with random selection: yesterday, today, and tomorrow 52 7. Sortition futures 65 8. Strategies 76 Appendix: Examples of citizen participation 84 Bibliography 93 Acknowledgments Brownlea, John Burnheim, Ned Crosby, Many people we’ve talked to find the Jim Dator, Mary Lane, Marcus Schmidt, idea of random selection in politics and Stuart White. Their input was unnatural and unwelcome. This didn’t valuable even when we decided on an deter us! Fortunately, there were a few alternative approach. Helpful comments enthusiasts who got and kept us going. were also received from Ted Becker, Alan Davies, Fred Emery, and Merrelyn Stephen Healy, Lars Klüver, and Ken Emery provided the original inspiration Russell. Others who provided many years ago as well as ongoing information are acknowledged in the conversations. text. The process of obtaining comments Ted Becker encouraged us to write has been stimulating because not all this book. On drafts, we received readers go with us all the way on extensive comments from Arthur randomness. 1 Introduction Government by elected representatives is to be involved in decision making is capable taught in schools and presented in the media as of making a useful contribution, and that the the natural way of doing things. Powerfully fairest way to ensure everyone has such an legitimized by the ideas of mandate and merit, opportunity is to give them an equal chance to representatives elected under this system be involved. Random selection worked in consider that the electorate has given them a ancient Athens. It works today to select juries mandate to govern, while bureaucrats consider and has proved, through many practical that merit and expertise justify their role in a experiments, that it can work well to deal with powerful decision-making elite. Representa- policy issues. tive government obviously is a great Random selection can be used to promote improvement over previous systems of rule both small-scale and large-scale political such as feudalism, autocracy, and dictatorship, participation, from a tiny exercise in street but nevertheless it is a system of rule in which improvement to a national electoral system. citizens have relatively little impact on a day- Like election, it needs to be used sensibly, to-day basis. with appropriate controls to ensure best Representative government has its limita- operation. tions. It concentrates power into a parliament There are various terms that can be used to or congress and the elected representatives can refer to random selection in decision making. become vulnerable to vested interests. The Typically we use the phrase “random selec- voters are given responsibility only for opinion tion,” sometimes abbreviating it to “random- formation, not decision making, and those ness.” An alternative is to refer to a “lottery” representatives who make the decisions have or the “lot system.” The latter is standard in low accountability. These and other problems discussing ancient Athenian democracy. are inevitable in representative government Finally there is the term “sortition,” which because it is a system in which a small number means the act of casting lots, which can be of people — politicians and high-level bureau- used to refer to choosing decision makers by crats — have a great deal of power which can lot, lottery, or random selection. be exercised to serve powerful interests, including their own self interests. OVERVIEW Most people attribute problems with repre- sentative government to individual politicians The chapters that follow show how random and specific policies. A standard assumption is selection can be used to create a more partici- that if only the right people could be elected patory democracy. Our general framework is and the correct policies implemented, then to first introduce various uses of randomness everything would be okay. But the problems in decision making (Chapter 2), then deal with go much deeper. examples and methods of participation in We want to step aside from a belief in the decision making without random selection ideas of mandate and merit as rationales for (Chapters 3 and 4), discuss current experience governance, since they are used to stymie with decision making involving random efforts to foster greater citizen participation. selection (Chapters 5 and 6), give an outline of We suggest instead a different foundation for possible political futures involving greater use fostering participation and diffusing power: of sortition (Chapter 7), and conclude with random selection. some ideas about strategies for moving The assumption behind random selection in towards greater citizen participation through politics is that just about anyone who wishes random selection (Chapter 8). 2 Random selection in politics Chapter 2 sets the scene by illustrating the making in planning and policy making looks role of randomness as an explicit factor in good. decision making. It looks broadly at random Chapter 7 puts the case for random selec- selection in our everyday lives, for example at tion as a means of replacing representative the way gamblers toss a coin in the interests of government by direct citizen control. In fairness and the way in which Dutch universi- “demarchy,” groups of local citizens, ties choose between student applicants. randomly chosen from volunteers, deal with Random selection is shown to be a fair and policy on different functions such as industry, useful method for making decisions. It is, of education, and entertainment. Demarchy uses course, fundamental to those legal systems random selection to overcome the central that rely on it for selecting juries. The chapter dilemma of direct democracy, that not every- includes a description of the lot system in one has the time or interest to be involved in ancient Athens. making decisions about every topic. We Chapter 3 considers the possibilities pre- conclude in Chapter 8 with a discussion of sented by direct democracy, in which groups strategy for promoting random selection in of people run their lives directly without rul- politics, covering likely opponents, likely ers, elected or otherwise. Direct democracy is supporters, and opportunities for introducing evident in a number of historical and revolu- random selection. tionary events, through self-governing bodies Our aim is neither to undertake a compre- such as communes, soviets, councils, or hensive critique of the present system nor a committees, as well as in experiences in detailed examination of the literature. Rather workers’ control and community self- we emphasize innovative experiments and management. Other methods of direct possible applications of random selection, democracy include consensus, initiative, and aiming to provide clear descriptions and to referendum. We note limitations as well as raise ideas and questions while avoiding advantages of direct democracy. ponderous academic apparatus. Chapter 4 surveys a number of consultative The ideas in this book are rational but will mechanisms that have been used in technology not be popular with the elites whose power assessment, urban planning, and service and position will be threatened. Random delivery. Various consultative methods are selection undermines the claims to privilege discussed but they are ones that are currently based on appeals to merit and electoral devoid of a random selection component. mandate. Random selection may not even be Inevitably, these consultative options tend to popular with some of those within alternative replicate the corporate model of boards of movements, because it potentially threatens directors or representative governments and to their privileged positions. But these ideas are reproduce the very hierarchies they wish to at the heart of democracy and were the basis replace. They do, however, have potential to of the first political activities which stirred be transformed into fairer methods through the democracy into life in the polis of ancient use of random selection. Athens. This yearning for participation that is Chapters 5 and 6 offer a way out of this fair and inclusive strikes a chord for many. For mirroring of unsatisfactory representative some it has been prompted by a hatred of methods. Chapter 5 looks at the early days of government, for others by a love of modern citizen participation with random democracy. selection, particularly those methods that were Random selection should not be considered born in the 1970s and continue today — in isolation. Yes, it is a significant tool to citizens panels and planning cells. Chapter 6 transform politics. On its own it can increase continues the story, covering a number of fairness in decision making. Integrated with fascinating case studies from various coun- deliberation and consensus building it can tries. The future of participation in decision become a powerful means to achieve social justice and genuine democracy. Introduction 3 In the remainder of this chapter we outline government is quite young, less than a some problems with representative govern- thousand years old, and that voting by a ment arising from the nature of the party substantial proportion of the population is only system, the effect of power on leaders, the a couple of centuries old. Despite the youth- effect of electoral politics on citizens, and the fulness of representative government as it is existence of bureaucracy. It is useful to now practiced, it remains largely unchallenged understand the dynamics and shortcomings of as the established, accepted norm. This is representative government in order to despite its many flaws.