Changing Language Loyalty and Identity: An Ethnographic Inquiry of Societal Transformation among the Javanese People in Yogyakarta, Indonesia by Lusia Marliana Nurani A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Approved August 2015 by the Graduate Supervisory Committee: Teresa L. McCarty, Co-Chair Mary Eunice Romero-Little, Co-Chair Aya Matsuda ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY December 2015 ABSTRACT This study examines changing language loyalties of the sociopolitically most dominant ethnic group in Indonesia, the Javanese. Although Javanese language has the largest number of speakers, within the last five decades the language is gradually losing its speakers who prioritize the national language, Indonesian. This phenomenon led me to inquire into the extent to which their native language matters for their Javanese identity and how the language planning and policy (LPP) mechanism works to foster Javanese language. To collect data, I conducted a six-month ethnographic research project in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The findings show that Javanese language shift occurs because of strong supports from the government toward Indonesian by emphasizing its role as a symbol to unify all ethnic groups in Indonesia into one nation. Consequently, interference in intergenerational language transmission, a limited scope of Javanese use, decrease language competence, and negative attitude toward Javanese are evident. Although Javanese language is still perceived as the most profound marker of Javanese identity, it is now challenging to maintain it because of its limited role in most domains. The study also indicates that the Javanese people are now strongly inclined to Islam reflected by their piety to Islamic rules such as positive attitude to learn liturgic Arabic, to leave behind Javanese tradition not in line with Islam, and to view religion as a panacea to heal social problems. This high regard for Islam is also evident in schools. Furthermore, the Javanese people value highly English although nobody uses it as a medium of daily communication. However, the fact that English is tested in the secondary education national exams and the university entrance exam makes it necessary i for people to learn it. In addition, English is regarded as a modern, intellectual, and elite language. In short, the Javanese people perceive English as an avenue to achieve academic and professional success as well as higher social status. Altogether, this study shows that shifting language loyalty among the Javanese people is an indication of societal transformation. ii DEDICATION For my father, Jono Lesmana, whose life experience has been my primary inspiration for this dissertation project For my mother, Sri Haryati, whose endless encouragement has helped me to finish my study For both my father and my mother who have taught me to persevere and to work hard for the dreams I aspire to achieve For my sisters, Laila Aryani and Amelia Destari, and for my brother, Anton Kristiawan, who have been my constant sources of support I am thankful to have you. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It is often said that there is light at the end of the tunnel but frankly the path I took has always been so full of light that I did not need to wait until the end of the tunnel to see it because people who had accompanied me to reach the finish line had tremendously illuminated this so-called dark tunnel. They are indeed the true light to whom I will always forever feel indebted. Therefore, I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude to them for their unconditional supports in the pursuit of my education. First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to all my participants who had let me enter their life for half a year. Their trust in me to unravel their life story and their patience with my in-depth endless questions did touch my heart. They are the heart and soul of this dissertation. Indeed, this study would not have been possible without their immense help. I would also like to sincerely thank my committee, Dr. Teresa McCarty, Dr. Mary Eunice Romero-Little, and Dr. Aya Masuda, whose expertise and guidance have influenced my research and enabled me to craft and finish my dissertation. Dr. McCarty, I whole-heartedly thank you for introducing me to ethnography. Throughout my PhD journey, I have learned immesureable knowledge about ethnography from you. I am also honored that you have mentored me to the academia world through research mentoring and conference presentations. Words failed to express how greatly I am indebted to you. Dr. Romero-Little, I am grateful that I took your class, Language/Literacy- Indigenous People. From the academically stimulating discussion in that class, I became iv more decisive to focus on the Indigenous language maintenance. Your background as an Indigenous scholar and your expertise in Indigenous language maintenance has solidified my research trajectory. I would also like to extend my gratitude to the following professors for their contribution to the completion of my study. My deepest gratitude to Dr. Karen Adams for her significant support throughout my study. My heartfelt thanks to Professor John Ulrich Wolff (Cornell University) and Professor Soepomo Poedjosoedarmo (Universitas Gadjah Mada) who shared their expertise in Javanese language and society by giving me insightful feedbacks on dissertation. My special thanks to Dr. Elizabeth Swadener who let me join her dissertation writing support group where I had a chance to meet with inspiring PhD students from different field of studies. To all my friends in PhD Applied Linguistics Program-English Department, Dissertation Writing Support Group, and Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College with whom I shared my ups and downs during this academic adventure, I felt so grateful to cross path with them. I have also been blessed with supports from the Indonesian Fulbright students and the Indonesian community in Arizona from the first day I arrived to this day. Lastly, I would like to thank my family in Indonesia (my parents, my sisters, and my brother) who always had faith in me even when I was in doubt. I am thankful for your countless encouragement and unconditional love. I cannot thank you enough! v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES.................................................................................................. xiii LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................ xiv CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY............................................. 1 Objectives of the Study............................................................... 6 Research Questions..................................................................... 6 Setting the Scene......................................................................... 7 Javanese Language and Society............................................. 13 Javanese Language Shift ....................................................... 25 Summary..................................................................................... 36 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW......................................................................................... 39 Theoretical Framework............................................................. 39 Untangling the Identity......................................................... 40 Nationalist Discourse of Indigeneity.................................... 50 Critical Ethnography of Language Planning and Policy...... 57 Literature Review...................................................................... 58 The Development of Language Planning and Policy Theory................................................................................... 59 Language Language Shift and Language Maintenance: An- vi CHAPTER Page Overview across the Globe................................................... 64 Summary................................................................................... 76 3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY......................... 81 Research Design......................................................................... 81 Research Sites............................................................................ 82 Gemah and Ripah................................................................. 93 South School and North School........................................... 98 Additional Research Sites.................................................... 101 Participants............................................................................... 102 Recruitments....................................................................... 102 Ethical Consideration.......................................................... 104 Data Collection Method........................................................... 105 Participant Observation....................................................... 105 In-Depth Interviews............................................................ 106 School/Classroom Observation........................................... 108 Picture Taking..................................................................... 108 Data Analysis........................................................................... 108 Summary.................................................................................. 110 4 JAVANESE LANGUAGE AND IDENTITY AT THE MICRO LEVEL: VOICES OF THE VILLAGERS..................................... 111 Gemah Village.........................................................................