DEPARTAMENTO DE EDUCACIÓN COMPARADA E HISTORIA DE LA EDUCACIÓN FACULTAD DE FILOSOFÍAY CIENCIAS DE LA EDUCACIÓN UNIVERSIDAD DE VALENCIA INTERNATIONALISATION IN HIGHER EDUCATION: A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF CROSS-BORDER TYPES 1 & 2 EDUCATION AND THEIR IMPACT ON DEVELOPING AND DEVELOPED COUNTRIES Jacqueline M. Taylor Trabajo de Investigación del Programa de Doctorado 120F. Director: Dr. Luis Miguel Lázaro Lorente Valencia, mayo de 2014 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The journey has been longer than initially anticipated, and certainly a memorable one. Embarking on this journey was made possible when the Department of Comparative Education and the History of Education accepted my letter of application. Thus, I express my gratitude for having had the opportunity to pursue my studies within the department and by extension, the University of Valencia. The journey has been both challenging and very rewarding due to all the persons who have made this a worthwhile experience. I begin by expressing thanks to Dr. Luis Miguel Lázaro Lorente for having accepted to be director of my Doctoral thesis. His ongoing encouragement to publish articles and to co-author a chapter, as well as his administrative assistance in providing the necessary documents required of the department for the renewal of my student visa annually is greatly appreciated. I am also grateful for the interest in my progress shown by each person in the Secretary Office of the department, Dr. Joan Marie Senet and Dr. Maria Jesús Martinez Usarralde throughout the years. I also wish to thank all my classmates, especially Ana Garcia, who has enriched my international student experience. I would like to thank my all friends who have encouraged me along this trajectory; but special thanks to Noemi Martinez, Loida Sanchez, Danny Moreno and David Guaita who have been with me on this journey from the beginning and who have been most encouraging and very supportive when I needed it most. As mentioned before, I have spent more time pursuing my studies here in Spain than was initially planned, and all was made possible by the emotional and financial support and love of my family. Special thanks to my mother Selda, my brothers Harnel and Pervis, but especially to my sister Loanne who would not allow me to quit even if I wanted to. This research paper is also in memory of my father Ruel A. Taylor. Finally, and most importantly, I thank God for his undying love and faithfulness to me. Without him it would not have been possible! 3 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Acknowledgement ………………………………………………………………………..3 Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………...9 Presentation ……………………………………………………………………………...11 Methodology …………………………………………………………………………….15 Acronyms and Abbreviations ……………………………………………………………17 INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………………19 SECTION ONE …………………………………………………………………………27 CHAPTER I 1. Globalisation and Internationalisation in Higher Education …………………….29 1.1 Internationalisation in higher education …………………………………….36 1.1.1 Internationalisation and student mobility ………………………..54 1.1.2 Internationalisation and programme & institution mobility ….....56 1.2 Assessing internationalisation in higher education ……………………….....60 1.2.1 Benchmarking internationalisation ……………………………...62 1.2.2 Benefits and risks to internationalisation ………………………..65 1.2.3 The brain mobility effect ………………………………………...67 1.2.4 Trends in internationalisation ……………………………............71 CHAPTER II 2. Cross-Border Higher Education and the GATS …………………………………77 2.1 What is GATS? ……………………………………………………………...77 2.2 GATS implications for higher education ……………………………………78 2.3 The GATS implications for developed and developing Countries ………….90 2.4 GATS member committed to education ………………………………….....92 2.5 Cross-border education under Doha Round ………………………………....92 2.6 The future of the GATS in higher education………………………………...96 SECTION TWO …………………………………………………………………………98 CHAPTER III 3. Regional Trends in Cross-border Education: An Overview …………………...100 3.1 Europe and North America Region ………………………………………...103 3.1.1 Western Europe and North America ……………………………107 3.1.2 East and Southeast Europe ……………………………………...120 3.2 Asia and the Pacific Region ………………………………………………...125 3.2.1 East Asia and the Pacific ………………………………………..125 3.2.2 Central Asia ……………………………………………………..138 3.2.3 South Asia ………………………………………………………146 3.3 Middle East and North Africa Region ……………………………………...152 5 3.4 Sub-Saharan Africa Region ………………………………………………...157 3.5 Latin American and the Caribbean Region ………………………………...168 3.5.1 Latin America …………………………………………………...169 3.5.2 The Caribbean …………………………………………………..179 3.6 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………….185 CHAPTER IV 4. International Student Mobility: A Comparative View of Lead Destination ................................................................................................187 4.1 Lead destinations and origins of international student ……………………188 4.2 Factors influencing students’ choice of country …………………………...196 4.3 International student level and type tertiary education …………………....202 4.4 Student mobility among lead destinations ………………………………...205 4.5 Terms and condition for international students ……………………………206 CHAPTER V 5. Programme and Institution Mobility: A Comparative View of Lead Providers ……………………………………………………………........209 5.1 Modes of delivery ……………………………………………………….....214 5.2 Lead countries’ programme and institution mobility activities ……………234 5.3 Future Trends ………………………………………………………………243 SECTION THREE …………………………………………………………………… 247 CHAPTER VI 6. Cross-border Education: Challenges and Opportunities .………………............249 6.1 Challenges and opportunities in CbEd Type-1 …………………………….250 6.1.1 Culture adaptation and curricula orientation. International students making the adjustments ………………………………250 6.1.2 A matter of recognition ………………………………………...257 6.1.3 The challenge of discrimination ………………………………..259 6.1.4 The finance challenge ………………………………………….261 6.1.5 The disability challenges………………………………………..263 6.1.6 Opportunities for international students ……………………….265 6.2 Challenges and opportunities in CbEd Type-2 …………………………….266 6.2.1 Challenges: Quality and accreditation …………………………267 6.2.2 Opportunities: International degree/mobility …………………..267 CONCLUSION ………………………………………………………………………..269 BIBLIOGRPAHY & WEBGRAPHY …………………………………………………275 APPENDICES …………………………………………………………………………321 Appendix A International Education Policies …………………………………………323 Appendix B EduGATS for Higher Education and Service Commitment ………..........327 6 Appendix C Recommendation Guidelines for Quality Concerning Provision in Cross-border Higher Education .………………………........331 Appendix D Erasmus Mundus ……………………………………………...................341 Appendix E Lead Countries’ Definitions of International/Foreign Student ………….343 Appendix F International Students/Foreign Student Tuition Cost and Revenue Contribution …………………………………................345 Appendix G La Traducción ………………………………………………………….....347 Appendix H Cross-border Education Student & Institution Interview Questions ……. 371 List of Boxes Box 4.1 OECD and Partner Countries offering tertiary programmes in English (2007) ……………………………………………………………...198 Box 4.2 Tuition fees structure ………………………………………………………….199 List of Figures Figure 3.1 Student mobility in Western Europe and North America …………………..116 Figure 3.2 Student mobility in East and Southeast Europe …………………………….124 Figure 3.3 Student mobility in East Asia and the Pacific ……………………………...135 Figure 3.4 Student mobility in Central Asia …………………………………………...144 Figure 3.5 Student mobility in South Asia ……………………………………………..150 Figure 3.6 Student mobility in Middle East and North Africa ………………………....155 Figure 3.7a Student mobility in Southern African Development Community………....166 Figure 3.7b Student mobility in Sub-Saharan Africa …………………………………..167 Figure 3.8 Student mobility in Latin America …………………………………………178 Figure 3.9 Student mobility in the Caribbean ……………………………………….....184 Figure 5.1 MOOCs and open education timeline ……………………………………...223 Figure 5.2 & 5.3 New open learning model …………………………………………....227 List of Tables Table 1.1 Evolution of international education terminology …………………………….31 Table 1.2 Implications of five elements of globalization for the internationalisation of higher education ……………………………………… 41 Table 1.3 Three Generations of cross-border education ………………………………...53 Table 2.1 Key elements & rules of GATS – explanation and application ………………80 Table 2.2 Examples of the four modes of supply (from the perspective of an "importing" country [Country B]) …………...........82 Table 3.1 Higher education institutions and enrolment (2011-2012) …………………..141 Table 4.1 Atlas student mobility chart ………………………………………………....192 Table 4.2 Distribution of foreign students in tertiary education by country of destination (2005-2011) ………………………………………193 7 Table 4.3 Trends in the number of foreign students enrolled outside their country of origin (2000 to 2007) …………………......193 Table 4.4 Flow of international/foreign students in lead destinations …………………194 Table 4.5 Top sending countries of international students and the number of international students they host (2012 & 2014) …………196 Table 5.1 International education terminologies categorised ………………………….214 Table 5.2 Major delivery modes and investment in Germany……………………….....216 Table 5.3 Good practice model for transnational education …………………………...217 Table 5.4a Typology of cross-border provider mobility …………………………….....221 Table 5.4b Typology of cross-border programme mobility …………………………....222