Notes Introduction 1. Timothy Campbell, introduction to Bios. Biopolitics and Philosophy by Roberto Esposito (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008), vii. 2. David Graeber, “The Sadness of post- Workerism or Art and Immaterial Labor Conference a Sort of Review,” The Commoner, April 1, 2008, accessed May 22, 2011, http://www.commoner.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2008/04/graeber_ sadness.pdf. 3. Michel Foucault, Society Must Be Defended 1975–1976 (New York: Picador, 2003), 210, 211, 212. 4. Ibid., 213. 5. Racism works for the state as “a break into the domain of life that is under power’s control: the break between what must live and what must die” (ibid., 254). 6. Ibid., 212. 7. Michel Foucault, The Birth of Biopolitics: Lectures at the Collège de France 1978–1979 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 219. 8. Ibid., 224. 9. Ibid., 229. 10. See Giorgio Agamben, Homo Sacer. Sovereign Power and Bare Life (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998) and State of Exception (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005). 11. Esposito, Bios. Biopolitics and Philosophy, 14, 15. 12. Ibid., 147. 13. Laurent Dubreuil, “Leaving Politics. Bios, Zo¯e¯ Life,” Diacritics 36.2 (2006): 88. 14. Paolo Virno, A Grammar of the Multitude (New York: Semiotext[e], 2004), 81. Chapter 1 1. Catalogo Bolaffi delle Fiat, 1899–1970; repertorio completo della produzione automobilistica Fiat dalle origini ad oggi, ed. Angelo Tito Anselmi (Turin: G. Bolaffi , 1970), 15. 2. Gwyn A. Williams, introduction to The Occupation of the Factories: Italy 1920, by Paolo Spriano (London: Pluto Press, 1975), 9. See also Giorgio Porosini, 174 ● Notes Il capitalismo italiano nella prima guerra mondiale (Florence: La Nuova Italia Editore, 1975), 10–17, and Rosario Romero, Breve storia della grande industria in Italia 1861–1961 (Milan: Il Saggiatore, 1988), 89–97. 3. Martin Clark, Antonio Gramsci and the Revolution That Failed (New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 1977), 16. 4. See Spriano, Occupation of the Factories, 44. 5. Ibid. 6. Gwyn A. Williams, Proletarian Order: Antonio Gramsci, Factory Councils and the Origins of Communism in Italy 1911–1921 (London: Pluto Press, 1975), 69; see also Darrow Schecter, Gramsci and the Theory of Industrial Democracy (Brookfi eld: Gower Publishing Company, 1991). 7. Angelo Tasca, “Battute di preludio,” L’Ordine Nuovo, May 1, 1919. 8. Antonio Gramsci, Pre- Prison Writings, trans. Virginia Cox (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 179. 9. Enea Matta, “Vita operaia. Psicologia da proprietari,” L’Ordine Nuovo, May 31, 1919. 10. Ibid., 137. 11. Frederick Winslow Taylor, The Principles of Scientifi c Management (New York and London: Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1915), 32. 12. Murray Bookchin, Post- Scarcity Anarchism (Berkeley: The Rampant Press, 1971), 37. 13. Gramsci, PPW, 102. 14. Ibid., 96. 15. Spriano, Occupation of the Factories, 25–26. 16. Gramsci, PPW, 128; see also Clark, Antonio Gramsci, 65–68. 17. Adolfo Pepe, Storia del sindacato in Italia nel ’900. La CGL e l’età liberale, vol. 4 (Rome: Ediesse, 1997), 24–25. 18. Quoted in Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy. A Political History (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997), 287. 19. Gramsci, PPW, 39. 20. Ibid., 40. 21. Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks, trans. Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith (New York: International Publisher, 2003), 358. 22. Williams, Proletarian Order, 156. 23. Clark, Antonio Gramsci, 36. 24. Williams, Proletarian Order, 157. 25. Clark, Antonio Gramsci, 38. 26. Quoted in Antonio Gramsci, Selection from Political Writings (1910–1920), trans. John Mathews (London: ElecBook, 2001), 303. 27. Gramsci, SPW, 363. 28. Ibid., 362. 29. Ibid., 366. 30. Pietro Mosso [Carlo Pietri], “Il sistema Taylor e i Consigli dei produttori. La Scuola,” L’Ordine Nuovo, Nov. 22, 1919. Notes ● 175 31. Guy Debord, The Society of the Spectacle, trans. Ken Knabb (1967; London: Rebel Press, 1983), 69. 32. Clark, Antonio Gramsci, 98. On the April occupation, see also Camilla Ravera, Diario di trent’anni, 1913–1943 (Rome: Editori Riuniti, 1973). 33. Clark, Antonio Gramsci, 99. 34. Ibid. 35. Ibid., 103. 36. Quoted in Clark, Antonio Gramsci, 104. 37. Quoted in Aurelio Lepre, La formazione del partito comunista d’Italia (Turin: Editori Riuniti, 1971), 218. 38. Gramsci, SPW, 443; see also Lepre, La formazione del partito, 218. 39. But a few months later, Lenin made clear that the ordinovista platform and the struggle in the factories were “in the main correct and . fully in keeping with the fundamental principles of the Third International” (quoted in Gramsci, SPW, 445). 40. Quoted in Spriano, Occupation of the Factories, 46. 41. Ibid. 42. Quoted in Spriano, Occupation of the Factories, 188. 43. Ibid., 89–95. 44. Paolo Spriano, Storia del Partito Comunista, vol. 1 (Turin: Einaudi, 1967), 79, and Occupation of the Factories, 100. As Charles S. Maier puts it: “The councils could thus hold either old union beer or new revolutionary liquor. Bourgeois leaders were prepared to drain a glass if the workers agreed to the weaker potion,” Recasting Bourgeois Europe: Stabilization in France, Germany, and Italy after World War I (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975), 148. 45. Maier, Recasting Bourgeois Europe, 9. 46. Karl Marx, Capital, ed. Friedrich Engels, vol. 3 (1894; Marxists Internet Archive, 1999), accessed May 22, 2011, http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/ 1894-c3/ch27.htm. 47. See Anton Pannekoek, Workers Councils (Melbourne: Southern Advocate for Workers’ Councils, 1950). 48. Gramsci, PPW, 44. 49. This is a problem Gramsci delineated revisiting the thought of Antonio Labriola (1843–1904). Labriola was the fi rst to open a space for an effective elaboration of Marxist principles in Italian philosophy, the fi rst to position historical mate- rialism as that philosophy of praxis that would supersede the other two major currents of Italian philosophy: idealism and positivism. See Antonio Labriola, Socialism and Philosophy (Chicago: Charles H. Kerr and Company, 1907). 50. Croce’s philosophy wanted to preserve the dynamism of idealist dialectics through the critique of Hegel’s “panlogism,” that is, the reduction of reality to the unitary rational form of the Spirit. He maintained that in Hegel the movement of the Spirit builds on opposites (thesis/antithesis/synthesis) that exclude each other’s, and proposed instead the idea of distinct concepts that “unite with one another,” while preserving their autonomy. Benedetto Croce, 176 ● Notes What Is Living and What Is Dead of the Philosophy of Hegel (Kitchener: Batoche Books, 1906), 14. 51. Leonardo Paggi, Gramsci e il moderno principe (Rome: Editori Riuniti, 1970), 21. 52. Gramsci, PPW, 31. 53. Sergio Romano, Giovanni Gentile: un fi losofo al potere negli anni del regime (Milan: Rizzoli, 2004). On the blurring of actualism into philosophy of praxis, see Eugenio Garin, Cronache di Filosofi a (Bari: Laterza, 1959) and Paggi, Gramsci e il moderno principe, 20–23. 54. Giovanni Gentile, The Theory of Mind as Pure Act (London: Macmillan and Co., 1922), 56. 55. Giovanni Gentile, The Reform of Education (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1922), 74–75. Gentile grants Hegel for having posited reality as the movement of the Spirit, but he criticizes him for having thought becoming as something that grows out the indefi niteness of being, that is to say, an encompassing totality nonreduc- ible to the activity of the subject. Actualism instead sees the becoming of the Spirit as radically immanent to the act of thinking, “outside of which . there is no thought,” as Gentile writes in Theory of Mind, 56. 56. Benito Mussolini, “Nel solco delle grandi fi losofi e: Relativismo e Fascismo,” Il Popolo d’Italia, Nov. 22, 1921. 57. Fabio Frosini, “Il ritorno a Marx nei quaderni del carcere (1930),” Marx e Gramsci memoria e attualità, ed. Giuseppe Petronio and Marina Paladini Musitelli (Rome: manifestolibri, 2001), 45. 58. Labriola, Socialism and Philosophy, 68. 59. Gramsci, PPW, 78. 60. Ibid., 57. 61. Frosini, Marx e Gramsci memoria e attualità, 55. 62. Paul Piccone, Italian Marxism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), 116 [emphasis mine]. 63. Gramsci, SPN, 445. 64. Ibid., 450. 65. Antonio Gramsci, Further Selections from the Prison Notebooks, trans. Derek Boothman (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), 536. 66. Giuseppe Fiori, Antonio Gramsci Life of a Revolutionary (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1971), 230. 67. Antonio Gramsci, Letters from Prison, vol. 1, trans. Raymond Rosenthal (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), 257. For a comprehensive appraisal, see Giorgio Baratta, “Americanismo e fordismo,” Le parole di Gramsci, ed. Fabio Frosini and Guido Liguori (Rome: Carocci, 2004) and “Libri e articoli indicati da Gramsci,” Antonio Gramsci Quaderno 22: Americanismo e fordismo, ed. Franco De Felice (Turin: Einaudi, 1978). 68. Giorgio Baratta, “Antonio Gramsci critico dell’americanismo,” Modern Times: Gramsci e la critica dell’americanismo, ed. Giorgio Baratta and Andrea Catone (Milan: Cooperativa Diffusioni 84, 1989), 30. Notes ● 177 69. Peter Ives, Gramsci’s Politics of Language: Engaging the Bakhtin Circle and the Frankfurt School (Toronto: Toronto University Press, 2004), 103. 70. Eric Auerbach, Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1968), 73. Ives correctly connects the notion of translatability to Benjamin, 97–133. 71. Arne Melberg, “Mimetic Temporality,” Interlitteraria 3 (1998): 109. 72. Ives, Gramsci’s Politics of Language,