ASSESSMENT OF INTEGRATED COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT: A CASE STUDY IN THE SERIBU ISLANDS, INDONESIA Aulia Riza Farhan A thesis in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy SCHOOL OF SURVEYING AND GEOSPATIAL ENGINEERING FACULTY OF ENGINEERING THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES MARCH 2013 COPYRIGHT STATEMENT ‘I hereby grant the University of New South Wales or its agents the right to archive and to make available my thesis or dissertation in whole or part in the University libraries in all forms of media, now or here after known, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I retain all proprietary rights, such as patent rights. I also retain the right to use in future works (such as articles or books) all or part of this thesis or dissertation. I also authorize University Microfilms to use the 350-word abstract of my thesis in Dissertation Abstract International (this is applicable to doctoral theses only). I have either used no substantial portions of copyright material in my thesis or I have obtained permission to use copyright material; where permission has not been granted I have applied/will apply for a partial restriction of the digital copy of my thesis or dissertation.' Signed ……………………………………………........................... Date ……………………………………………........................... i ABSTRACT The sustainability of marine and coastal environments has received significant attention since the Earth Summit in 1992, where Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) was proposed as a framework for cooperation among decision makers and decisive action in the interests of better coastal management. Vulnerability assessment is one of the methods currently being used to measure the ocean and coastal sustainability in order to enable better evaluation and redesign of land-based development and policy-making. Because of different geological and geographical formations, the elements that comprise the vulnerability indicators are different from each other, and there are various vulnerability equations that have been used. At the present time, there are no fixed vulnerability indicators that can be applied universally in every country. The Seribu Islands, Indonesia, also known in English as the Thousand Islands, have been chosen as a study site for vulnerability assessment according to the basic principles of ICZM theory. The Seribu Islands region, consisting of 106 islands, is located to the north of Jakarta, the capital city of Indonesia. The assessment focuses on spatial analysis using Geographic Information System (GIS) data on physical/biophysical change, and is carried out in conjunction with qualitative analysis of socio-economic and governance factors, including reviewing ocean and coastal policies in Indonesia. The history of spatial changes in the study area was crucial for identifying the vulnerability indicators and qualitatively assessing them in terms of socio-economic factors. Governance factors added valuable information for enhancing the accuracy and validity of the results. The results showed that the region possesses sustainability from a social and economic perspective; however, its environment is severely degraded. Urban pressures, over exploitations of fishery and pollutants from four major rivers in Daerah Khusus Ibu Kota Jakarta i.e. Special Capital Region of Jakarta, Banten Province and West Jawa Province have played a significant role in this environmental degradation. As a result, six islands from within the Seribu Islands region had been lost by 2012. The research also found that the policies designed to maintain the balance of social, economic and environmental ii impacts on the region have failed to protect the region from change. The ambiguity and powerlessness of law enforcement is another factor responsible for environmental damage in the region. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis would not have been possible without the assistance of a number of institutions and the guidance and help of several individuals, who contributed in various ways to the preparation and completion of this study. First and foremost, I am indebted to the Australian Development Scholarships scheme, which funded my study and gave me the support I needed to produce and complete my thesis. It is with immense gratitude that I acknowledge the support, guidance and encouragement of my supervisor, Professor Samsung Lim, who with his patience and knowledge has supported me throughout my thesis, while allowing me the room to work in my own way. Besides my supervisor, I would also like to thank my co-supervisor, Dr. Craig Roberts, and Professor Chris Rizos, Head of the School of Surveying and Geospatial Engineering at UNSW, for their encouragement and insightful comments. I also owe a debt of gratitude to those institutions that helped with the collation of the research data and material that enabled me to conduct this research. Without them, I could not have written this thesis. They are: the Local Government of the Seribu Islands region, the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries of the Republic of Indonesia, the Indonesian Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology, the Indonesian Institute of Sciences and the Royal Tropical Institute of Amsterdam. Special thank you to Dr. Keith Foulcher, who helped in the writing and editing stages and has made this thesis look remarkable. My sincere thanks to students and staff of the School of Surveying and Geospatial Engineering for their support and assistance. I would also like to thank my beloved parents and families for their continuous moral support throughout all of my studies. iv Not to be forgotten are my cheerful group of fellow research students, Irja Simbiak, Dyah Santi Dewi, Asep Permana, Muhamad Undu, who were always there for me, from the beginning until the completion of this thesis. I cannot find words to thank you all for your support and encouragement. Last but not least, this thesis would have remained a dream had it not been for my lovely wife, Kurwiany ‘Dessy’ Ukar, who has always supported me in so many ways. Thank you for encouraging me to pursue this degree. v LIST OF PUBLICATION AND CONFERENCES Published Journal Papers: 1. FARHAN, A. R. & LIM, S. 2010. Integrated coastal zone management towards Indonesia global ocean observing system (INA-GOOS): Review and recommendation." Ocean and Coastal Management, 53(8): 421-427. 2. FARHAN, A. R. & LIM, S. 2011. Resilience assessment on coastline changes and urban settlements: A case study in Seribu Islands, Indonesia. Ocean and Coastal Management, 54(5): 391-400. 3. FARHAN, A. R. & LIM, S. 2012. Vulnerability assessment of ecological conditions in Seribu Islands, Indonesia. Ocean and Coastal Management, 65, 1-14. 4. FARHAN, A. R. & LIM, S. 2013. Improving vulnerability assessment towards Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM): a case study of small islands in Indonesia. Journal of Coastal Conservation, DOI:10.1007/s11852-013-0269-9. Conference Proceedings Papers: 5. LIM, S., FARHAN, A. R. HAN, S. 2010. “Resilience Assessment on the Urban Development and Coastal Management”, Proceedings of International Symposium on Benefiting from Earth Observation, 4-6 October 2010, Kathmandu, Nepal. 6. FARHAN, A. R. & LIM, S. 2012. “Integrated assessments on small islands region towards the sustainable development: a case study in Seribu Islands, Indonesia", Proceedings of the 50th ECSA Conference, 3-7 June 2012, Venice, Italy. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS COPYRIGHT STATEMENT I ABSTRACT II ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS IV LIST OF PUBLICATION AND CONFERENCES VI TABLE OF CONTENTS VII ABBREVIATIONS X LIST OF FIGURES XII LIST OF TABLES XVI CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 RESEARCH BACKGROUND 1 1.2 RESEARCH AIM 2 1.3 CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY 4 1.4 THESIS STRUCTURE 5 CHAPTER 2 INTEGRATED COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT IN INDONESIA 6 2.1 INTRODUCTION 6 2.2 THEORY OF INTEGRATED COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT 7 2.3 INTEGRATED COASTAL MANAGEMENT IN THE ASIA PACIFIC REGION 10 2.4 SUSTAINABILITY AND PROBLEMS WITHIN ICZM IMPLEMENTATION 11 2.5 PROBLEMS WITH INTEGRATED COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT IN INDONESIA 12 2.6 THE INDONESIAN GLOBAL OCEAN OBSERVING SYSTEM (INA-GOOS) AS A SUPPORT FOR ICZM 16 2.7 AN APPROACH TO ICZM IMPLEMENTATION IN INDONESIA 19 2.7.1 ENHANCING CENTRAL GOVERNMENT AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT KNOWLEDGE 19 2.7.2 STRENGTHENING INA-GOOS 20 2.8 THE VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT AS A DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM 21 2.9 SUMMARY 25 CHAPTER 3 STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY 26 3.1 INTRODUCTION 26 vii 3.2 INDONESIA AS AN ARCHIPELAGIC STATE AND ITS SMALL ISLANDS 26 3.3 STUDY AREA 30 3.4 RESEARCH FRAMEWORK 33 3.5 RESEARCH DESIGN 34 3.6 SUMMARY 40 CHAPTER 4 RESILIENCE ASSESSMENT OF THE SERIBU ISLANDS 41 4.1 INTRODUCTION 41 4.2 ASSESSMENT OF URBAN SETTLEMENT ON THE SERIBU ISLANDS AS A RESILIENCE INDICATOR 41 4.3 METHODOLOGY 45 4.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 47 4.5 SUMMARY 59 CHAPTER 5 VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT OF ISLANDS NEAR JAKARTA BAY 60 5.1 INTRODUCTION 60 5.2 JAKARTA BAY 60 5.3 METHODOLOGY 62 5.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 65 5.5 SUMMARY 80 CHAPTER 6 ASSESSMENT OF OCEAN AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY 82 6.1 INTRODUCTION 82 6.2 POLITICAL REFORMATION AND THE DECENTRALISATION PROCESS 82 6.3 INDONESIAN POLICIES ON OCEAN AND COASTAL MANAGEMENT 86 6.3.1 BEFORE THE REFORMATION ERA 87 6.3.2 AFTER THE REFORMATION ERA 90 6.4 METHODOLOGY 92 6.4.1 POLICY IMPACT 92 6.4.2 POLICY ANALYSIS, EVALUATION AND VALIDATION 92 6.5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 93 6.5.1 GOVERNANCE 103 6.5.2 PUBLIC/LOCAL COMMUNITY 104 viii 6.5.3 DEVELOPMENT AND SPATIAL PLANNING 105 6.6 SUMMARY 107 CHAPTER 7 INTEGRATED VULNERABILITY