TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH TCRP PROGRAM REPORT 102 Transit-Oriented Sponsored by Development in the the Federal United States: Transit Administration Experiences, Challenges, and Prospects TCRP OVERSIGHT AND PROJECT TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 2004 (Membership as of January 2004) SELECTION COMMITTEE (as of January 2004) OFFICERS CHAIR Chair: Michael S. Townes, President and CEO, Hampton Roads Transit, Hampton, VA J. BARRY BARKER Vice Chair: Joseph H. Boardman, Commissioner, New York State DOT Transit Authority of River City Executive Director: Robert E. Skinner, Jr., Transportation Research Board MEMBERS MEMBERS KAREN ANTION MICHAEL W. BEHRENS, Executive Director, Texas DOT Karen Antion Consulting SARAH C. CAMPBELL, President, TransManagement, Inc., Washington, DC GORDON AOYAGI Montgomery County Government E. DEAN CARLSON, Director, Carlson Associates, Topeka, KS RONALD L. BARNES JOHN L. CRAIG, Director, Nebraska Department of Roads Central Ohio Transit Authority DOUGLAS G. DUNCAN, President and CEO, FedEx Freight, Memphis, TN LINDA J. BOHLINGER GENEVIEVE GIULIANO, Director, Metrans Transportation Center and Professor, School of Policy, HNTB Corp. Planning, and Development, USC, Los Angeles ANDREW BONDS, JR. BERNARD S. GROSECLOSE, JR., President and CEO, South Carolina State Ports Authority Parsons Transportation Group, Inc. SUSAN HANSON, Landry University Prof. of Geography, Graduate School of Geography, Clark University JENNIFER L. DORN JAMES R. HERTWIG, President, Landstar Logistics, Inc., Jacksonville, FL FTA HENRY L. HUNGERBEELER, Director, Missouri DOT NATHANIEL P. FORD, SR. ADIB K. KANAFANI, Cahill Professor of Civil Engineering, University of California, Berkeley Metropolitan Atlanta RTA RONALD F. KIRBY, Director of Transportation Planning, Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments CONSTANCE GARBER HERBERT S. LEVINSON, Principal, Herbert S. Levinson Transportation Consultant, New Haven, CT York County Community Action Corp. SUE MCNEIL, Director, Urban Transportation Center and Professor, College of Urban Planning and Public FRED M. GILLIAM Affairs, University of Illinois, Chicago Capital Metropolitan Transportation Authority MICHAEL D. MEYER, Professor, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute KIM R. GREEN of Technology GFI GENFARE SHARON GREENE KAM MOVASSAGHI, Secretary of Transportation, Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development Sharon Greene & Associates CAROL A. MURRAY, Commissioner, New Hampshire DOT JILL A. HOUGH JOHN E. NJORD, Executive Director, Utah DOT North Dakota State University DAVID PLAVIN, President, Airports Council International, Washington, DC ROBERT H. IRWIN JOHN REBENSDORF, Vice Pres., Network and Service Planning, Union Pacific Railroad Co., Omaha, NE British Columbia Transit PHILIP A. SHUCET, Commissioner, Virginia DOT CELIA G. KUPERSMITH C. MICHAEL WALTON, Ernest H. Cockrell Centennial Chair in Engineering, University of Texas, Austin Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and LINDA S. WATSON, General Manager, Corpus Christi Regional Transportation Authority, Corpus Christi, TX Transportation District PAUL J. LARROUSSE EX OFFICIO MEMBERS National Transit Institute MARION C. BLAKEY, Federal Aviation Administrator, U.S.DOT DAVID A. LEE Connecticut Transit SAMUEL G. BONASSO, Acting Administrator, Research and Special Programs Administration, U.S.DOT CLARENCE W. MARSELLA REBECCA M. BREWSTER, President and COO, American Transportation Research Institute, Smyrna, GA Denver Regional Transportation District GEORGE BUGLIARELLO, Chancellor, Polytechnic University and Foreign Secretary, National Academy FAYE L. M. MOORE of Engineering Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation THOMAS H. COLLINS (Adm., U.S. Coast Guard), Commandant, U.S. Coast Guard Authority JENNIFER L. DORN, Federal Transit Administrator, U.S.DOT STEPHANIE L. PINSON ROBERT B. FLOWERS (Lt. Gen., U.S. Army), Chief of Engineers and Commander, U.S. Army Corps of Gilbert Tweed Associates, Inc. Engineers ROBERT H. PRINCE, JR. EDWARD R. HAMBERGER, President and CEO, Association of American Railroads DMJM+HARRIS JOHN C. HORSLEY, Exec. Dir., American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials JEFFREY M. ROSENBERG RICK KOWALEWSKI, Deputy Director, Bureau of Transportation Statistics, U.S.DOT Amalgamated Transit Union WILLIAM W. MILLAR, President, American Public Transportation Association PAUL P. SKOUTELAS MARY E. PETERS, Federal Highway Administrator, U.S.DOT Port Authority of Allegheny County SUZANNE RUDZINSKI, Director, Transportation and Regional Programs, U.S. EPA LINDA S. WATSON JEFFREY W. RUNGE, National Highway Traffic Safety Administrator, U.S.DOT Corpus Christi RTA ALLAN RUTTER, Federal Railroad Administrator, U.S.DOT EX OFFICIO MEMBERS ANNETTE M. SANDBERG, Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administrator, U.S.DOT WILLIAM W. MILLAR WILLIAM G. SCHUBERT, Maritime Administrator, U.S.DOT APTA ROBERT A. VENEZIA, Program Manager of Public Health Applications, National Aeronautics and Space MARY E. PETERS Administration FHWA JOHN C. HORSLEY TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM AASHTO Transportation Research Board Executive Committee Subcommittee for TCRP ROBERT E. SKINNER, JR. TRB MICHAEL S. TOWNES, Hampton Roads Transit, Hampton, VA (Chair) JOSEPH H. BOARDMAN, New York State DOT TDC EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR JENNIFER L. DORN, Federal Transit Administration, U.S.DOT LOUIS F. SANDERS GENEVIEVE GIULIANO, University of Southern California, Los Angeles APTA WILLIAM W. MILLAR, American Public Transportation Association SECRETARY ROBERT E. SKINNER, JR., Transportation Research Board ROBERT J. REILLY C. MICHAEL WALTON, University of Texas, Austin TRB LINDA S. WATSON, Corpus Christi Regional Transportation Authority, Corpus Christi, TX TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM TCRP REPORT 102 Transit-Oriented Development in the United States: Experiences, Challenges, and Prospects ROBERT CERVERO STEVEN MURPHY CHRISTOPHER FERRELL NATASHA GOGUTS YU-HSIN TSAI Institute of Urban and Regional Development University of California at Berkeley Berkeley, CA G. B. ARRINGTON JOHN BOROSKI Parsons Brinckerhoff Quade & Douglas, Inc. Portland, OR JANET SMITH-HEIMER RON GOLEM PAUL PENINGER ERIC NAKAJIMA ENER CHUI Bay Area Economics Berkeley, CA ROBERT DUNPHY MEL MYERS SHANNON MCKAY NICOLE WITENSTEIN Urban Land Institute Washington, DC SUBJECT AREAS Planning and Administration • Public Transit Research Sponsored by the Federal Transit Administration in Cooperation with the Transit Development Corporation TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD WASHINGTON, D.C. 2004 www.TRB.org TRANSIT COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM TCRP REPORT 102 The nation’s growth and the need to meet mobility, Project H-27 FY 2001 environmental, and energy objectives place demands on public ISSN 1073-4872 transit systems. Current systems, some of which are old and in need ISBN 0-309-08795-3 of upgrading, must expand service area, increase service frequency, Library of Congress Control Number 2004107489 and improve efficiency to serve these demands. Research is necessary to solve operating problems, to adapt appropriate new © 2004 Transportation Research Board technologies from other industries, and to introduce innovations into Price $45.00 the transit industry. The Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP) serves as one of the principal means by which the transit industry can develop innovative near-term solutions to meet demands placed on it. The need for TCRP was originally identified in TRB Special Report 213—Research for Public Transit: New Directions, published in 1987 and based on a study sponsored by the Urban Mass Transportation Administration—now the Federal Transit Admin- istration (FTA). A report by the American Public Transportation NOTICE Association (APTA), Transportation 2000, also recognized the need The project that is the subject of this report was a part of the Transit Cooperative for local, problem-solving research. TCRP, modeled after the Research Program conducted by the Transportation Research Board with the longstanding and successful National Cooperative Highway approval of the Governing Board of the National Research Council. Such Research Program, undertakes research and other technical activities approval reflects the Governing Board’s judgment that the project concerned is in response to the needs of transit service providers. The scope of appropriate with respect to both the purposes and resources of the National TCRP includes a variety of transit research fields including plan- Research Council. ning, service configuration, equipment, facilities, operations, human The members of the technical advisory panel selected to monitor this project and resources, maintenance, policy, and administrative practices. to review this report were chosen for recognized scholarly competence and with TCRP was established under FTA sponsorship in July 1992. due consideration for the balance of disciplines appropriate to the project. The Proposed by the U.S. Department of Transportation, TCRP was opinions and conclusions expressed or implied are those of the research agency authorized as part of the Intermodal Surface Transportation that performed the research, and while they have been accepted as appropriate Efficiency Act of 1991 (ISTEA). On May 13, 1992, a memorandum by the technical panel, they are not necessarily those of the Transportation agreement outlining TCRP operating procedures was executed by Research Board, the National Research Council, the Transit Development the three cooperating organizations: FTA, The National Academies, Corporation,