UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Los Angeles “Free D.C.:” The Struggle for Civil, Political, and Human Rights in Washington, D.C., 1965-1979 A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in History by Selah Shalom Johnson 2015 © Copyright by Selah Shalom Johnson 2015 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION “Free D.C.:” The Struggle for Civil, Political, and Human Rights in Washington, D.C., 1965-1979 by Selah Shalom Johnson Doctor of Philosophy in History University of California, Los Angeles, 2015 Professor Brenda Stevenson, Chair “Free D.C:” The Struggle for Civil, Political, and Human Rights in Washington, D.C., 1965-1979, illuminates one of the greatest political shortcomings in 20th century America, which was the failure to provide full political enfranchisement for the citizens of Washington, D.C. – the first major American city with a majority African-American population. This project centers on the Free D.C. Movement, a political crusade to fully enfranchise Washingtonians, through grassroots organizing and by pressuring the Federal government to address the political, social, and economic ills that plagued the nation’s capital for nearly a century. Washingtonians’ struggle for full political enfranchisement was one of the most significant goals and significant shortcomings of the 20th century. ii Washington has been an under-researched part of Civil Rights Movement history, even though the city had an instrumental role during this era. My project explores the “Free D.C.” Movement through the lens of residential segregation, employment, and education. I examine how the desire for institutional changes and improvements in these areas helped shape and direct the local movement, and consequently undermined Washington, D.C. as the beacon of democracy and freedom. The Free D.C. Movement culminated in the late 1960s when many civil rights activists were starting to shift their focus from boycotts and protests, to political power and economic control in the black community. Unlike other civil rights activism, “Free D.C.” activism began with the intention of gaining full political enfranchisement and economic control. I have concluded that the lack of statehood and the lack of full political enfranchisement, essentially retarded Washingtonians’ social, political and economic progress, in what should have been one of the most transformative eras in their history. iii The dissertation of Selah Shalom Johnson is approved. Robin D.G. Kelley Lauren Derby Evelyn Blumenberg Brenda Stevenson, Committee Chair University of California, Los Angeles 2015 iv I dedicate this dissertation to the memory of my grandfather, Samuel J. “Pop-Pop” Nicholson for loving me, and for building my very first bookcase-by hand. The rest is history. v Table of Contents Introduction: “The Curious Case of Washington, D.C”………………………………………...p.1 Chapter 1: The Destruction of Washington’s Political Self-Determination & Black Resistance, 1890-1965……………………………………………………………………………………...p.10 Chapter 2: “Free D.C.:” The Dawn of Washington’s Local Liberation Movement, 1965- 1967…………………………………………………………………………………………....p. 39 Chapter 3: “The Day the District Shook:” The Riot and the Aftermath, 1968-1972………….p. 80 Chapter 4: “We Have Home Rule, Now What?: Home Rule and the Meaning of Black Political Power, 1973-1978”………………………………………………………………………..…p. 130 Epilogue……………………………………………………………………………...………p. 192 Appendix……………………………………………………………………………………..p. 202 Endnotes……………………………………………………………………………………....p.213 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………p.238 vi Acknowledgements I would first like to thank my Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ, for helping me maintain my sanity, while surrounded by circumstances in which I should have certainly lost it. I know it was nothing but the power of the Holy Spirit that got me through this process. To God be the glory for all of his blessings! I would like to thank Brenda Stevenson for serving as my advisor and committee chair. I am appreciative for all of your constructive criticism, professional advice, and the multiple letters of recommendation you submitted on my behalf. Additionally, I would like to thank Robin Kelley, Robin Derby and Evelyn Blumenberg for serving on my committee, writing several letters of recommendation, offering constructive feedback, and for supporting my project. Next, I would like to acknowledge my family: My mother, for her unconditional love and support throughout this process, and throughout my life. I would like to thank all of my siblings, who often did not understand what I was going through, but supported me through it, anyway- Muriel, Nile, Matthew and Danube. And of course, my three beautiful nieces Mariah, Nya, and Autumn. I also want to thank Eboni Shaw and Hadley Porter for their support as graduate counselors. Eboni, I am so grateful for your patience and always being a sounding board on the days I needed to vent. You have been a great over the past five years. I would like to thank my dear friend, old roommate, and Spelman sister, Lauren Stanley, for being one of the best friends I could have ever made in my life. You have been so supportive throughout this process, and I am forever grateful and appreciative of our bond. Additionally, I would like to thank my dear friend, Dr. Christopher Bonner, for being such a good friend, and for being willing to look over my prospectus and cover letters to keep me from embarrassing vii myself, before showing anybody else. I am so grateful to you for that. I would like to thank my friend, Brandon Jones for opening up his home to me on multiple research trips, so I could save money and be as close as possible to the archives. I want to thank my Spelman sister, Sequoia Shields, for giving me a place to stay for the ASALH conference, when I couldn’t afford a hotel- Thank you! I want to thank all of my friends that have offered me support and encouragement during this chapter of my life: Sabrina Smith, Zaneta Smith, Ebony Smith, Alma Heckman, Kristen Hilaire Glasgow, Laura Redford, Pablo Sierra, Melanie Arias, Dr. Kelly Gildersleeve, Amber Withers, Sandra Brasda, & Asya Spears. Additionally, I am grateful for all of the assistance I received at the archives including George Washington University’s Special Collections, the Manuscript Division at the Library of Congress, and the Moorland-Spingarn Research Center at Howard University. I would like to offer a special thank you to archivist, Mr. William Branch of the D.C. Office of Public Records, for his patience, assistance, and support. It is with great pleasure that I can acknowledge and thank those at my alma mater, Spelman College. I thank you all for giving me the tools and the foundation to become a great historian. I also want to thank you for the role you played in developing my personal character and thus, helping to make me the woman I am today. I love you all. viii Selah Shalom Johnson EDUCATION Master of Arts, U.S. History, UCLA, June 2012 Bachelor of Arts, History, Spelman College, Magna Cum Laude, Phi Beta Kappa, May 2010 PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE UCLA Instructor, Teaching Fellow for African-American Women & the Fight for Gender Equality in the 20th Century, March 2014-Present Developed Course Curriculum & Created Course Syllabus Conducts historical writing seminars Oversees undergraduate development of historical perspectives Facilitates seminar discussion Moderates weekly online discussion forums for students UCLA Teaching Fellow for Sex: From Biology to Gendered Society September 2014-March 2015 Facilitates discussion sections around the issues of sex/gender and the law & gender identity Leads undergraduate writing workshops Assists in course curriculum development UCLA Teaching Fellow for Online Course for 20th-21st Century U.S. History, August 2014- September 2014 & June 2013- August 2013 Created weekly video blog explaining overall historical concepts for each lesson Developed and maintained course webpage Facilitated online course discussion boards Held weekly office hours via Skype UCLA Teaching Associate for History 156: “Jazz and the Political Imagination,” September 2012-December 2012 Assisted in course development Taught approximately 30 students for this upper-level course Facilitated weekly class discussions on various assigned readings among students Graded two sets 7-10 page, small research papers UCLA Teaching Associate for “History 13B: The United States and its Colonial Origins: 19th Century,” January 2013- March 2013 & January 2012-March 2012 Lectured on the Postbellum South, emphasizing the 19th century African-American experience Developed and delivered lecture on the Reconstruction Era in the 19th century Assisted in course curriculum development UCLA Teaching Assistant for “History13C: The United States and its Colonial Origins: 20th and 21st Centuries,” April 2012- June 2012 Responsible for teaching three weekly sections, outside of course lectures to expand on course materials Assisted in curriculum development Conducted undergraduate historical writing workshops UCLA Teaching Assistant for “History 13A: History of the United States and its Colonial Origins: Colonial Origins and First Nation Building Acts,” September 2011- December 2011 Facilitated classroom discussions ix Conducted research and writing workshops Assisted in curriculum development ACADEMIC RESEARCH & WORK EXPERIENCE UCLA Graduate Student Researcher for School of Theater, Film and Television/ Online Editor, March 2013-June 2013 Reviewed accuracy of professor’s