Mental Health and Healing with the Carrier First Nation: Views of Seven Traditional Healers and Knowledge Holders by Christina Dobson Brazzoni M.S.W., University of Northern British Columbia, 1998 B.S.W., University of Calgary, 1989 Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Education in the Educational Leadership Program Faculty of Education Christina Dobson Brazzoni 2013 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY Fall 2013 HEALING WITH THE CARRIER FIRST NATION ii Approval Name: Christina Y. Dobson Brazzoni Degree: Doctor of Education Title of Thesis: Mental Health and Healing with the Carrier First Nation: Views of Seven Traditional Healers and Knowledge Holders Examining Committee: Chair: Patrice Keats, Associate Professor Adam Horvath Senior Supervisor Professor Emeritus Glen Schmidt Co-Supervisor Adjunct Professor Mabel Louie Committee Member Health Director Carrier Sekani Family Services Michelle Pidgeon Internal/External Examiner Assistant Professor Ralph Bodor External Examiner Associate Professor Faculty of Social Work University of Calgary Date Defended/Approved: August 1, 2013 Partial Copyright Licence HEALING WITH THE CARRIER FIRST NATION iv Ethics Statement HEALING WITH THE CARRIER FIRST NATION v Abstract The Carrier First Nations people are the original inhabitants of Central Northern British Columbia. Along with First Nations throughout Canada, the Carrier people have endured years of hardship as a result of European colonization. Over time, this has resulted in erosion of traditional practices and decline in overall health. The focus of this research is the mental health of Carrier First Nations. In present day, Western European mental health services are provided to Carrier people. There is ongoing concern that these services are not meeting the needs of the Carrier people because they are not provided from within a Carrier cultural framework. As a Non-First Nations mental health practitioner working in Carrier communities, the researcher has seen this struggle first hand. In efforts to understand what culturally appropriate mental health services for Carrier people are, the researcher looked to Carrier people. Using an ethnographic framework, the researcher explored Carrier First Nation views of mental health and healing through discussions with seven traditional healers and knowledge holders who live and practice in Carrier communities. The resulting data provides a rich description of Carrier worldviews with respect to health and healing. It also describes the work of traditional Carrier healers, historically, as well as in present day. While this worldview is similar to other First Nations across the country, it is uniquely Carrier. This research has implications for mental health practice in Carrier communities. Keywords: First Nation; Carrier; mental illness; mental health; traditional healing HEALING WITH THE CARRIER FIRST NATION vi Dedication To the Carrier people and those who walk with them. HEALING WITH THE CARRIER FIRST NATION vii Acknowledgements There are several people I would like to acknowledge and thank for having contributed in some way to this dissertation and my educational journey. First, I would like to thank the knowledge holders and traditional healers with whom I share this work. It was an honor and a privilege to talk with you and be given a glimpse into your worlds. This work is yours as much as it is mine. Although each of my research participants provided me permission to acknowledge them in this written work, I also committed to anonymity to each of them with regards to specific contributions. Therefore, I will acknowledge all of the healers, knowledge holders, and Elders who were involved in this work in some way, but will not identify who were my research participants. I thank and acknowledge the following people for their contribution to this work: • Leonard Ward • Donald Prince • Emma Baker • (The late) Cecile Ketlo • Margaret Antoine • (The late) Charlene Ketlo • Marilyn Janzen • Minnie Thomas • Robert Charlie • François Prince • Ruby Dominic Prince • Margaret Nooski HEALING WITH THE CARRIER FIRST NATION viii I thank the members of my academic committee, Dr. Adam Horvath, Dr. Glen Schmidt, and Ms. Mabel Louie. Adam, thank you for your academic guidance and occasional push in the right direction. Glen, this is the second graduate degree you have seen me through. I am very thankful for your expertise in the field and, once again, for your drive to perfection. Thank you Mabel, for your cultural wisdom. I also acknowledge and thank the late Geoff Maddock Jones. I always pictured you on the other side of the podium chairing my defense, and I am saddened that you will be absent. I will think of you then, and again when I sit over a pint and philosophise issues of the world. To my staff, at Brazzoni & Associates and Carrier Sekani Family Services. You have been my cheering section. You guys have been fabulous, selfless, and very supportive. Thank you. To Jackie Stokes, for your unwavering friendship, and your two week dedication to my dissertation on the Rivera Mayan. Somewhere between deep discussions, edits, and funky monkeys, you gave me insight and the push I needed to finish this degree. To Tony Cartey, for your friendship and support in this endeavor, and everything else. To my “little” brother Glen, my sister in law Melody, and my niece Asia for letting me stay at your home in White Rock while I researched, wrote and “whined”. Glen, your words to me, “I’m proud of you, sis”, when I started this degree, kept me going, when I was sure I couldn’t, because I didn’t want to risk being less to you. HEALING WITH THE CARRIER FIRST NATION ix Thanks to my “big” brother Dan and my sister in law Mickey for the great Mexico diversions. To my sister Jacquie, whose tragic death during the final writing of this dissertation, reminded me that life is precious and I needed to get on with it. Thanks to you mom for swapping me homes – I got your great place overlooking the ocean, while you took my place in the country with the responsibility of my children- so I could have a quiet place to write. To dad, your teachings are always in my head, and you are always in my heart. To Randy, for all the extra Dad duty while I traveled and wrote. Thanks for putting up with my constant requests for more “time”. To my children, Hunter and Jory. Thank you for your understanding for all the times your mom was “chained to the computer”. Your support and patience was fantastic. I think I have been a student in some degree for your whole lives. The message there is that we never stop learning in life. However, this is my last degree; soon it will be your turn. HEALING WITH THE CARRIER FIRST NATION x Table of Contents Approval ............................................................................................................................. ii Partial Copyright Licence .................................................................................................. iii Ethics Statement................................................................................................................. iv Abstract ................................................................................................................................v Dedication .......................................................................................................................... vi Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... vii Table of Contents .................................................................................................................x List of Tables ................................................................................................................... xiv Introduction ........................................................................................................................1 Research Question ...............................................................................................................4 Research Rationale ...............................................................................................................5 Current Issues in First Nations Mental Health. ...........................................................5 Providing Mental Health Services in Carrier Communities. ......................................7 Research Process ................................................................................................................15 Definition of the Research Topics. ...........................................................................16 Dissertation Structure .........................................................................................................17 Literature Review: First Nations Arrival to North America through to Present Day ......................19 Canada's First Nations: Pre European Contact ..................................................................20 The Arrival of the First People. ................................................................................20 First Nations Pre Contact ...................................................................................................23 Socio-Cultural Organization. ....................................................................................23 Early Healing Beliefs and Practices. .........................................................................24 The Early History of Carrier People. ........................................................................27