British Cyprus and the Long Great War, 1914–1925 Most of the Cypriot population, especially the lower classes, remained loyal to the British cause during the Great War and the island contributed significantly to the First World War, with men and materials. The British acknowledged this yet failed to institute political and economic reforms once the war ended. The obsession of Greek Cypriot elites with enosis (union with Greece), which only increased after the war, and the British dismissal of increasing the role of Cypriots in government, bringing the Christian and Muslim communities closer, and expanding franchise to all classes and sexes, led to serious problems down the line, not least the development of a democratic deficit. Andrekos Varnava studies the events and the impact of this crucial period. Andrekos Varnava is an Associate Professor in Imperial History at Flinders University, Adelaide and an Honorary Professor at De Montfort University, Leicester. Routledge Studies in First World War History Series Editor: John Bourne The University of Birmingham, UK The First World War is a subject of perennial interest to historians and is often regarded as a watershed event, marking the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the ‘modern’ industrial world. The sheer scale of the conflict and massive loss of life means that it is constantly being assessed and reassessed to examine its lasting military, political, sociological, industrial, cul- tural and economic impact. Reflecting the latest international scholarly research, the Routledge Studies in First World War History series provides a unique platform for the publication of monographs on all aspects of the Great War. Whilst the main thrust of the series is on the military aspects of the conflict, other related areas (including cultural, visual, literary, political and social) are also addressed. Books published are aimed primarily at a post- graduate academic audience, furthering exciting recent interpretations of the war, whilst still being accessible enough to appeal to a wider audience of educated lay readers. Also in this series British Cyprus and the Long Great War, 1914–1925: Empire, Loyalties and Democratic Deficit Andrekos Varnava Veterans of the First World War: Ex-Servicemen and Ex-Servicewomen in Post-War Britain and Ireland Edited by David Swift and Oliver Wilkinson Burying America’s World War Dead Tracy Fisher Policing the Home Front, 1914–1918 Mary Fraser The Great War in the Middle East: A Clash of Empires Edited by Robert Johnson and James E. Kitchen www.routledge.com/history/series/WWI British Cyprus and the Long Great War, 1914–1925 Empire, Loyalties and Democratic Deficit Andrekos Varnava First published 2020 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2020 Andrekos Varnava The right of Andrekos Varnava to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with Sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Varnava, Andrekos, author. Title: British Cyprus and the long Great War, 1914-1925 : empire, loyalties and democratic deficit / Andrekos Varnava. Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2019. | Series: Routledge studies in First World War history | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2019008075| ISBN 9781138698321 (hardback) | ISBN 9781315519418 (ebook) | ISBN 9781315519401 (adobe) | ISBN 9781315519395 (mobi) | ISBN 9781315519388 (epub) Subjects: LCSH: Cyprus–History–British rule, 1878-1960. | World War, 1914-1918–Cyprus. | Cyprus–Foreign relations–Great Britain. | Great Britain–Foreign relations–Cyprus. Classification: LCC DS54.8 .V365 2019 | DDC 940.3/5693–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019008075 ISBN: 978-1-138-69832-1 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-51941-8 (ebk) Typeset in Times New Roman by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd. I wanted to dedicate this book to my wonderful wife, Helen Komodromou-Varnava. Thanks for your support and patience. Contents List of figures viii List of tables ix Acknowledgements x List of abbreviations xii Introduction 1 1 British Cyprus, 1878–1915: The inconsequential possession 14 2 Elite loyalties: Enosis, the Greek schism and the war effort 36 3 Middle class loyalties: Military intelligence and the war effort 61 4 Lower class loyalties: Cypriots at war 95 5 Refugees and settlers: Inclusivity and exclusivity 121 6 ‘Remember Heligoland’: Retaining Cyprus against the enosis policy 155 7 Colonialism, enosis and democratic deficit, 1921–25 185 Conclusion 218 Selected Bibliography 222 Index 235 Figures 1.1 The Location of Cyprus. Source: © Dr Andrekos Varnava, 2007. 15 1.2 Map of Cyprus. Source: © Andrekos Varnava, 2005. 15 2.1 Portrait of Archbishop Kyrillos III at the Archbishopric in Nicosia. Source: Archbishopric, Nicosia. Courtesy of the Holy Archbishopric, Nicosia, Cyprus. 39 3.1 Captured German aerial photo of Famagusta. Source: SA1/1147/ 1918. Courtesy of the Cypriot State Archives. 68 3.2 Map of POW Camp. Source: SA1/1147/1918: Courtesy of the Cypriot State Archives. 73 3.3 Photo of Snuff Box, ‘Turkish Prisoners Cyprus 1917’. Source: © Associate Professor Andrekos Varnava, 2019. 73 3.4 Photo of POW Camp and Private Henry Miller Smith, Royal Scots. Source: © Neil Smith, 2019. 78 3.5 Photo of Colonel E. A. Howe, with Private Henry Miller Smith, Royal Scots, and other men. Source: © Neil Smith, 2019. 79 4.1 Cypriot muleteers 1917, Photo I. Source: Canon Frank Newham’s trunk. Courtesy of the Office of the Secretary of the Board of Governors, Nicosia English School. 98 4.2 Cypriot muleteers 1917, Photo II. Source: Canon Frank Newham’s trunk. Courtesy of the Office of the Secretary of the Board of Governors, Nicosia English School. 98 4.3 Muleteers enlisting, with Canon Newman and Zaptiehs. Source: Canon Frank Newham’s trunk. Courtesy of the Office of the Secretary of the Board of Governors, Nicosia English School. 99 7.1 Sir Malcolm Stevenson, High Commissioner and Governor of Cyprus (1919–26). Source: National Portrait Gallery. 187 Tables 1.1 Religious Distribution of Population 1881–1921 21 1.2 Employment and Unemployment numbers, 1891–1921 24 1.3 Main Occupations 1891–1921 25 5.1 Number of refugees arriving from Mersina, 7–21 November 1921 138 5.2 Refugee Arrivals for the year to 27 November 1921 142 Acknowledgements This book has been a long time in the making. I had intended to cover this period of British imperialism in Cyprus during my PhD, which was awarded in 2006 and published a decade ago. As can be seen, an entire book has been needed to cover this tumultuous 12-year period. And had I written this book ten years ago it would not have resembled the product before you, as I am now far more driven than I was back then by the social and economic forces that influence the development of a given place. This was reflected in my second book on the Cypriot Mule Corps, which interrupted the writing of this book. On this journey there have been many archives and people who have facilitated my research. Thank you to the Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences and the School of History and International Relations at Flinders University, and the Australian Academy of the Humanities for various grants to make research trips to the UK, Cyprus and Turkey. I must thank the staff of the numerous archives and libraries for assisting me with my research: the National Archives of the UK, Kew Gardens, London; The British Library, London; the State Archives, Nicosia; the Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivleri in Istanbul; and, last but not least, the Flinders University Library, especially the document delivery staff. I also thank my two research assistants in Cyprus, Marios Siammas and Giorgos Charalambous, as well as Christina Mathopoulou for providing me with her notes on and scans of documents on the Russian refugees in Cyprus. I am also thankful to the many historians for discussing the project with me over the many long years that it has taken me to research and write this book. The following names are listed in no particular order: Evan Smith, Tim Reardon, Melanie Oppenheimer, Trevor Harris, Michael J.K. Walsh, John M. MacKenzie, Panikos Panayi, Eric S. Richards†, Joy Damousi, Rolandos Katsiaounis†, Nicholas Doumanis, Andonis Piperoglou, Romain Fathi, Meggie Hutchison, Mete Hatay, Erin Sebo, Tabitha Morgan, Ann Matters, Iliya Marovich-Old, Casey Raeside, Mehmet Polatel, Nicholas Coureas, Hubert Faustmann, Vangelis Kehriotis†,MichalisN.Michael, Antonis Hadjikyriacou, Matt Fitzpatrick, Peter Monteath, David Lockwood, Catherine Kevin, Brian Dickey, Lance Brennan, David Close, Richard Scully, Acknowledgements xi Alexis Rappas, John Connor, Roger Christofides, Hew Strachan and Marios Hadjianastasis. I also thank the anonymous reviewers for their helpful sugges- tions and all who attended and commented on the various papers I presented on this subject at many conferences and seminars. This book has not been easy to finish. There have been several personal and professional issues that have delayed its completion. I want to thank the team at Routledge for their support and patience. Finally, but not least, I want to thank all those close to me, and in particular my wife Helen Komodromou- Varnava, our son Barnabas Andreas Varnava and our daughter Maria Anna Varnava, as well as my parents and in-laws for their patience, support and love.