The Second Tetrarchy and the Great Persecution Eutropius, Brevarium, 9.27-28 (Eutr. 9.27-28) 27. 1. But Herculius was undisguisedly cruel, and of a violent temper, and showed his severity of disposition in the sternness of his looks. 2. Gratifying his own inclination, he joined with Diocletian in even the most cruel of his proceedings. 3. But when Diocletian, as age bore heavily upon him, felt himself unable to sustain the government of the empire, he suggested to Herculius that they should both retire into private life, and commit the duty of upholding the state to more vigorous and youthful hands. 4. With this suggestion his colleague reluctantly complied. 5. Both of them, in the same day, exchanged the robe of empire for an ordinary dress, Diocletian at Nicomedia, Herculius at Milan, soon after a magnificent triumph which they celebrated at Rome over several nations, with a noble succession of pictures, and in which the wives, sisters, and children of Narseus were led before their chariots. 6. The one then retired to Salonae, and the other into Lucania. 28. 1. Diocletian lived to an old age in a private station, at a villa which is not far from Salonae, in honourable retirement, exercising extraordinary philosophy, inasmuch as he alone of all men, since the foundation of the Roman empire, voluntarily returned from so high a dignity to the condition of private life, and to an equality with the other citizens. 2. That happened to him, therefore, which had happened to no one since men were created, that, though he died in a private condition, he was enrolled among the gods. Sextus Aurelius Victor, On the Caesars, 39.46-40.4 (Aur. Vict. Caes 39.46-40.4) The End of the First Tetrarchy 39. 46. Nevertheless, although they were making these reforms, they were not without vices. For Maximianus Herculius was so much the slave of his lust that he did not withhold his vicious nature from even the bodies of his hostages. In Valerius [Diocletian] there was too little honest faith in his friends doubtless from fear of rebellions, since he believed that the peace of the Tetrarchy might be disturbed by incautious disclosures. 47. And so, for this reason, the forces of the city were cut down to size, with the number of the praetorian cohorts and common men in arms reduced; because of his fear of rebellion, many historians believe he chose to renounce his power. 48. For in fact he was an investigator of impending events; when he discovered that by fate internal disasters and, as it were, some kind of crash in Rome's position was about to occur, after celebrating his twentieth year of rule, this quite vigorous man gave away the care of the republic. He had converted Maximianus Hercules, who had enjoyed one year less in power, to this view with great difficulty. With different people judging in different ways, the purity of truth has been falsified; nevertheless it seems to me that his excellent nature led him to reject ambition in order to return to the common life. The Second Tetrarchy 40. 1. And so, with Diocletian and Maximianus having been succeeded by Constantius and Armentarius [Galerius], Severus and Maximinus, natives of Illyricum, were appointed Caesars. Severus was placed over Italy while Maximinus was in the lands which Diocletian had held. 2. Constantine was unable to tolerate this; from boyhood, his proud and powerful spirit had been driven by a desire for command. He thought of a scheme for escape by killing the post horses in order to frustrate those who pursued him by whatever route he traveled, he reached Britain. He had to do this because Galerius held him in the position of a hostage on the pretext of duty. 3. And in nearly the same place and day, the final moments of life were closing in on Constantius, the father of Constantine. 4. Upon Constantius' death, Constantine seized power with the support of all who were present. Anonymous, Epitome de caesaribus (Epitome of the Caesars), 39.5-40 (Epit. Caes. 39.5-40) 5. Diocletian actually relinquished the imperial fasces of his own accord at Nicomedia and grew old on his private estates. 6. It was he who, when solicited by Herculius and Galerius for the purpose of resuming control, responded in this way, as though avoiding some kind of plague: "If you could see at Salonae the cabbages raised by our hands, you surely would never judge that a temptation." 7. He lived sixty-eight years, out of which he passed almost nine in a common condition. He was consumed, as was sufficiently clear, by voluntary death as a result of fear. Inasmuch as when, called by Constantine and Licinius to the celebrations of a wedding which he was by no means well enough to attend, he had excused himself, after threatening replies were received in which it was being proclaimed that he had favored Maxentius and was favoring Maximian, he, regarding assassination as dishonorable, is said to have drunk poison. 40. In these days, the Caesars Constantius, the father of Constantine, and Armentarius were proclaimed Augusti, with Severus in Italy and, in the East, Maximinus, the son of Galerius' sister, created Caesars; and at the same time Constantine was made a Caesar. Zosimus New Histories, 2.7-8 (Zos. NH 2.7-8) 7. Experience assures us, that while these ceremonies [the secular games] were duly performed, according to the direction of the oracles, the empire was secure, and likely to retain its sovereignty over almost all the known world; and on the other hand, when they were neglected, about the time when Diocletian laid down the imperial dignity, it fell to decay, and degenerated insensibly into barbarism. That I state nothing but truth I will prove from chronology. From the consulate of Chilo and Libo, in which Severus celebrated the secular games, or rites, to the ninth consulate of Diocletian, and eighth of Maximianus, was a hundred and one years. Then Diocletian from an emperor became a private individual, and Maximianus followed his example. But when Constantine and Licinius were in their third consulship, the 110 years were completed, and the festival ought to have been kept according to custom; but it was neglected, and affairs consequently declined to their present unfortunate condition. The Second Tetrarchy; Constantine Joins Constantius 8. Three years after Diocletian died, and the reigning emperors, Constantius and Maximianus Galerius declared Severus and Maximinus (who was nephew to Galerius), the Caesars, giving all Italy to Severus, and the eastern provinces to Maximinus. Affairs being all regulated and the barbarians quiet, since the Romans had been so successful against them, Constantine, who was the son of Constantius by a concubine, and had previously an ambition of being emperor (but was more inflamed with that desire, since Severus and Maximinus had acquired the name and honour of Caesars), was now resolved to leave the place where he had resided, and to go to his father Constantius, who was beyond the Alps, and generally in Britain. But being apprehensive of seizure by the way, many persons being well acquainted of his anxiety for dominion, he maimed all the horses that were kept for public service, whenever he came to any stable where they were kept, except what he took for his own use. He continued to do this throughout his journey, by which means he prevented those that pursued him from going further, while he himself proceeded toward the country where his father was. Lactantius, On the Death of the Persecutors, 17-19 (Lact. DM 17-19) 17. The wicked plan [persecution of Christians] having been carried into execution, Diocletian, whom prosperity had now abandoned, set out instantly for Rome, there to celebrate the commencement of the twentieth year of his reign. That solemnity was performed on the twelfth of the kalends of December; and suddenly the emperor, unable to bear the Roman freedom of speech, peevishly and impatiently burst away from the city. The kalends of January approached, at which day the consulship, for the ninth time, was to be offered to him; yet, rather than continue thirteen days longer in Rome, he chose that his first appearance as consul should be at Ravenna. Having, however, begun his journey in winter, amidst intense cold and incessant rains, he contracted a slight but lingering disease: it harassed him without intermission, so that he was obliged for the most part to be carried in a litter. Then, at the close of summer, he made a circuit along the banks of the Danube, and so came to Nicomedia. His disease had now become more grievous and oppressing; yet he caused himself to be brought out, in order to dedicate that circus which, at the conclusion of the twentieth year of his reign, he had erected. Immediately he grew so languid and feeble, that prayers for his life were put up to all the gods. Then suddenly, on the ides of December, there was heard in the palace sorrow, and weeping, and lamentation, and the courtiers ran to and fro; there was silence throughout the city, and a report went of the death, and even of the burial, of Diocletian: but early on the morrow it was suddenly rumoured that he still lived. At this the countenance of his domestics and courtiers changed from melancholy to happy. Nevertheless there were who suspected his death to be kept secret until the arrival of Galerius Caesar, lest in the meanwhile the soldiery should attempt some change in the government; and this suspicion grew so universal, that no one would believe the emperor alive, until, on the kalends of March, he appeared in public, but so wan, his illness having lasted almost a year, as hardly to be known again.