Born 22 September 1791 Newington Butts, Surrey, England Died 25 August 1867 (aged 75) Hampton Court, Surrey, England Residence: England Fields Physics and Chemistry Known for Faraday's law of induction, Electrochemistry, Faraday effect, Faraday cage, Faraday constant, Faraday cup Faraday's laws of electrolysis, Faraday paradox, Faraday rotator Faraday-efficiency effect, Faraday wave, Faraday wheel, Lines of force Influenced by: Humphry Davy , William Thomas Brande Notable awards Royal Medal (1835 & 1846) Religious stance Sandemanian Michael Faraday was an English chemist and physicist (or natural philosopher, in the terminology of the time) who contributed to the fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry. Faraday studied the magnetic field around a conductor carrying a DC electric current, and established the basis for the magnetic field concept in physics. He discovered electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism, and laws of electrolysis. He established that magnetism could affect rays of light and that there was an underlying relationship between the two phenomena. His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices formed the foundation of electric motor technology, and it was largely due to his efforts that electricity became viable for use in technology. As a chemist, Faraday discovered benzene, investigated the clathrate hydrate of chlorine, invented an early form of the bunsen burner and the system of oxidation numbers, and popularized terminology such as anode, cathode, electrode, and ion. Although Faraday received little formal education and knew little of higher mathematics, such as calculus, he was one of the most influential scientists in history. Some historians of science refer to him as the best experimentalist in the history of science. The SI unit of capacitance, the farad, is named after him, as is the Faraday constant, the charge on a mole of electrons (about 96,485 coulombs). Faraday's law of induction states that a magnetic field changing in time creates a proportional electromotive force. Faraday was the first and foremost Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, a position to which he was appointed for life. Faraday was highly religious; he was a member of the Sandemanian Church, a Christian sect founded in 1730 which demanded total faith and commitment. Biographers have noted that "a strong sense of the unity of God and nature pervaded Faraday's life and work." Electricity and magnetism Faraday's greatest work was probably with electricity and magnetism. The first experiment which he recorded was the construction of a voltaic pile with seven halfpence pieces, stacked together with seven disks of sheet zinc, and six pieces of paper moistened with salt water. With this pile he decomposed sulphate of magnesia In 1821, soon after the Danish physicist and chemist, Hans Christian Ørsted discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetism, Davy and British scientist William Hyde Wollaston tried but failed to design an electric motor.Faraday, having discussed the problem with the two men, went on to build two devices to produce what he called electromagnetic rotation: a continuous circular motion from the circular magnetic force around a wire and a wire extending into a pool of mercury with a magnet placed inside would rotate around the magnet if supplied with current from a chemical Faraday in battery. The latter device is known as a homopolar motor. These experiments and inventions form his Lab the foundation of modern electromagnetic technology. Faraday published his results without acknowledging his debt to Wollaston and Davy, and the resulting controversy caused Faraday to withdraw from electromagnetic research for several years.[citation needed] At this stage, there is also evidence[citation needed] to suggest that Davy may have been trying to slow Faraday's rise as a scientist (or natural philosopher as it was known then). In 1825, for instance, Davy set him onto optical glass experiments, which progressed for six years with no great results. It was not until Davy's death, in 1829, that Faraday stopped these fruitless tasks and moved on to endeavors that were more worthwhile. Two years later, in 1831, he began his great series of experiments in which he discovered electromagnetic induction. Joseph Henry likely discovered self-induction a few months earlier and both may have been anticipated by the work of Francesco Zantedeschi in Italy in 1829 and 1830. Faraday's breakthrough came when he wrapped two insulated coils of wire around an iron ring, and found that upon passing a current through one coil, a momentary current was induced in the other coil.[3] This phenomenon is known as mutual induction. The iron ring-coil apparatus is still on display at the Royal Institution. In subsequent experiments he found that if he moved a magnet through a loop of wire, an electric current flowed in the wire. The current also flowed if the loop was moved over a stationary magnet. His demonstrations established that a changing magnetic field produces an electric field. This relation was mathematically modelled by Faraday's law, which subsequently became one of the four Maxwell equations. These in turn have evolved into the generalisation known today as field theory. 1921: Faraday develops the world's first electric motor. One of Faraday's famous lectures. One of Faraday's famous lectures. The historical context in which Carnot worked was that the scientific study of the steam engine hardly existed, but the engine was actually pretty far along in its development. It had attained a widely recognized economic and industrial importance. Newcomen had invented the first piston operated steam engine over a century before, in 1712. About 50 years after that, Watt made his celebrated improvements to greatly increase the efficiency and practicality of the engine. Compound engines, with more than one stage of expansion, had already been invented. There was even a crude form of an internal combustion engine, which Carnot was familiar with, and described in some detail in his book. (Carnot 1960, p. 56) Amazing progress on the practical side had been made, so at least some intuitive understanding of the engine's workings existed. The scientific basis of its operation, however, was almost nonexistent even after all this time. In 1824, the principle of conservation of energy was still immature and controversial, and an exact formulation of the first law of thermodynamics was yet over a decade away. The mechanical equivalent of heat was still two decades away. The prevalent theory of heat was the caloric theory which supposed that heat was a sort of weightless, invisible fluid that flowed when out of equilibrium. Engineers of Carnot's time had tried various mechanical means, such as high pressure steam, or use of some fluid other than steam, to improve the efficiency of engines. The efficiency, the work generated from a given quantity of fuel, such as from burning a lump of coal, in these early stages of engine development was mere 3%. The Carnot cycle Carnot proposed to answer two questions about the operation of heat engines: "Is the potential work available from a heat source potentially unbounded?" and "Can heat engines be in principle improved by replacing the steam by some other working fluid or gas?" He attempted to answer these in a memoir, published as a popular work in 1824 when he was only 28 years old. It was entitled Réflexions sur la puissance motrice du feu ("Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire"). The book was plainly intended to cover a rather wide range of topics about heat engines in a rather popular fashion. The equations were kept to a minimum and hardly called for anything beyond simple algebra and arithmetic, except occasionally in the footnotes, where he indulged in a few arguments involving a little calculus. He discussed the relative merits of air and steam as the working fluid, the merits of various points of steam engine design, and even threw out some ideas of his own on possible practical improvements. But, the most important part of the book was devoted to a quite abstract presentation of an idealized engine that could be used to understand and clarify the fundamental principles that are of general applicability to all heat engines, independent of the particular design choices that might be made. Perhaps the most important contribution Carnot made to thermodynamics was the process of abstraction of the essential features of the steam engine as it was known in his day into a more general, idealized heat engine. This resulted in a model thermodynamic system upon which exact calculations could be made, and avoided the complications introduced by many of the crude features in the contemporary versions of the steam engine. By idealizing the engine, he could give clear answers to his original two questions that were impossible to dispute. He showed that the efficiency of this idealized engine is a function only of the two temperatures of the reservoirs between which it functions. He did not, however, give the exact form of the ( − ) function, which was later derived to be T1 T2 ⁄T1, where T1 is the absolute temperature of the hotter reservoir. (Note: This equation probably came from Kelvin.) No thermal engine operating any other cycle can be more efficient, given the same operating temperatures. He saw very clearly, intuitively, that he could give very definite answers to the two questions set before the reader. The Carnot cycle is the most efficient possible engine, not only because of the (trivial) absence of friction and other incidental wasteful processes; the main reason is that there is supposed to be no conduction of heat between parts of the engine at different temperatures. He knew that the mere conduction of heat between bodies at different temperatures is a wasteful, irreversible process and must be eliminated if the heat engine is to have the maximum efficiency.