View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by University of Birmingham Research Archive, E-theses Repository REMILITARISING THE BYZANTINE IMPERIAL IMAGE: A STUDY OF NUMISMATIC EVIDENCE AND OTHER VISUAL MEDIA 1042-1453 by MICHAEL STEPHEN SAXBY A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Centre for Byzantine, Ottoman and Modern Greek Studies College of Arts and Law University of Birmingham March 2017 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. Abstract The messages in the imagery on Byzantine coins, although often neglected by scholars, were a key means of projecting imperial power. Emperors could project power via dress, ceremonial, and displays, but these methods would not have reached all subjects. Byzantine coins had the advantage of reaching all subjects, as the Byzantine economy was fundamentally monetized. Military symbols (figures, dress, and weapons), whose study has been rather overlooked, formed an important part of this imagery. Whilst military symbols disappeared from Byzantine coins in the early eighth century, and were absent for some three centuries, they were reintroduced in the mid-eleventh century and appeared until 1394/5. Their importance is indicated by the fact that military types comprised over half the overall total of types for some emperors. This study examines military symbols on Byzantine coins from the eleventh to the fourteenth centuries, and notes also imperial representations in other media. The numismatic sources for this study are the collections in the Barber Institute of Fine Arts, and Dumbarton Oaks. The general conclusions are that military symbols were used most frequently from 1204 to 1261, less frequently from 1261 to 1394/5, and least frequently from 1042 to 1204. The variety of military saints portrayed increased at first, but declined in the fourteenth century, until only St Demetrios remained, but in the highest status: riding with the emperor. ii Dedicated to Dianne Saxby in gratitude iii Acknowledgements I wish to record my sincere thanks to my supervisor Dr Ruth Macrides for her unstinting kindnss, help and guidance and for enabling me to deepen my understanding of the Byzantine world. I am very grateful to the following persons for their help: Dr Eurydice Georganteli, for all her work as my supervisor in the early stages of this thesis. Professor Dimiter Angelov and Professor Leslie Brubaker for stimulating discussions on specific topics. I am very grateful to the following for corresponding with me and for guiding me to much valuable information: Professor Anthony Kaldellis. Dr Cécile Morrisson. Dr Pagona Papadopoulou. Professor Vassiliki Penna. Dr Jonathan Shea. I am very grateful to the following for assistance in specific areas: Mrs Joni Joseph (Dumbarton Oaks) and Dr Maria Vrij (Barber Institute of Fine Arts) for much help in supplying illustrations. The staff of several University of Birmingham Libraries: Barber Institute of Fine Arts, Cadbury Research Library, and Main Library. I record with great gratitude the support and help over many years of my wife Dianne, and dedicate this thesis to her. iv Contents Volume 1 1. Themes of Imperial Power and their Projection Introduction 1 The aims of coin design: an example of propaganda? 5 The need for projection of imperial themes of power 14 The role of coin design in projecting imperial themes of power 24 The role of dress, ceremonial and displays in projecting imperial themes of power 31 Conclusions 40 2. Military Symbols on Byzantine Coins from 1042 to 1425 Methods of study 42 The mounted emperor 43 The military saints and the Archangel Michael 48 Military items of dress 54 Protection for other body parts 58 Weapons of the emperor and the warrior saints 70 Conclusions 82 3. Reintroduction and Development of Military Symbolism on Coins 1042 to 1143 Reintroduction and development of military symbolism on coins 1042 84 to 1143 Conclusions 100 Development of military symbols 101 Further development of military symbols 119 Conclusions 131 v 4. Development of Military Symbolism on Coins 1143 to 1204 Development of military symbolism on coins 1143 to 1204 132 Comparative analysis of military types 1042 to 1204 165 Conclusions 170 5. Military Symbolism on Coins 1204 to 1261 Introduction 173 The Latin imitative coinage 179 Coin issues with military symbolism from the empire of Nicaea 188 Conclusions 210 Coin issues with military symbolism from Thessaloniki 211 Conclusions 237 Coin issues with military symbolism from Epeiros 237 Conclusions 243 Portraits of the rulers of the successor states in other media 243 Conclusions 244 6. Military Symbolism on Coins 1261 to 1425 Introduction: mints and proportions of military types 247 Military symbolism on coins from the thirteenth to mid-fourteenth centuries 250 Conclusions 323 Military symbolism on coins from the mid-fourteenth to the late fourteenth century 324 Imperial portraits in other media 1261-1453 347 Conclusions 349 Conclusions 351 Volume 2 Illustrations Bibliography: primary sources Bibliography: secondary sources vi List of Illustrations Figure Facing Page 1. Silver tetradrachm of Philip II (359-336 BC) 1 2. Orich sestertius of Trajan (AD 98-117) 1 3. Gold solidus of Justin II (565-78) 1 4. Gold solidus of Anastasios (491-518) 2 5. Bronze coin of Arcadios (383-408) 2 6. Silver ceremonial coin of Leo III (717-41) 2 7. Class 13 copper trachy of Andronikos III (1328-41) 3 8. Class 12 copper trachy of Andronikos III (1328-41) 3 9. Class 14 copper trachy of Andronikos III (1328-41) 3 10. Aspron trachy nomisma in electrum of John II (1118-43) 4 11. Class IV gold histamenon of Constantine IX (1042-55) 4 12. Silver miliaresion of Constantine IX (1042-55) 4 13. Portrait of Basil II (976-1025) 5 14. The Barberini Ivory, c. 6th century 6 15. Class I gold histamenon of Isaac I (1057-59) 7 16. Class II gold histamenon of Isaac I (1057-59) 7 17. Silver miliaresion of Michael VII (1071-78) 7 18. Class II miliaresion in billon of Nikephoros (1078-81) 8 19. Aspron trachy nomisma in silver of Michael VIII (1259-82) 8 20. Histamenon in billon of Alexios I (1081-1118) 9 21. Type B half terarteron noummion in copper of John II (1118-43) 9 22. Aspron trachy nomisma in electrum of Manuel I (1143-80) 9 23. Type B tetarteron noummion in bronze of Andronikos I (1183-85) 10 24. Gold nomisma hyperpyron of Isaac II (1185-95) 10 25. Bronze terarteron noummion of Alexios III (1195-1204) 10 26. Type B aspron trachy nomisma in electrum of Theodore I (1208-21) 11 27. Type B aspron trachy nomisma in billon of John III (1221-54) 11 28. Type Q aspron trachy nomisma in billon of John III (1221-54) 11 vii 29. Type A tetarteron noummion in bronze of John III (1221-54) 12 30. Type C tetarteron noummion in bronze of John III (1221-54) 12 31. Type C aspron trachy nomisma in billon of Theodore II (1254-58) 12 32. Type D aspron trachy nomisma in billon of Theodore II (1254-58) 13 33. Type C aspron trachy nomisma in electrum of Theodore Angelos (1225/7-30) 13 34. Type C aspron trachy nomisma in billon of Theodore Angelos (1225/7-30) 13 35. Type B aspron trachy nomisma in silver of Theodore Angelos (1225/7-30) 14 36. Type F aspron trachy nomisma in billon of of Theodore Angelos (1225/7-30) 14 37. Variety B tetarteron noummion in bronze of Theodore Angelos (1225/7-30) 15 38. Type B aspron trachy nomisma in silver of Manuel Komnenos Doukas (1230-37) 15 39. Type A aspron trachy nomisma in billon of Manuel Komnenos Doukas (1230-37) 15 40. Type C aspron trachy nomisma in billon of Manuel Komnenos Doukas (1230-37) 16 41. Type B aspron trachy nomisma in billon of John Komnenos Doukas (1237-42) 16 42. Aspron trachy nomisma in billon of Demetrios Komnenos Doukas (1244-46) 16 43. Type G aspron trachy nomisma in billon of Manuel Komnenos Doukas (1230-37) 17 44. Type Q aspron trachy nomisma in billon of John Komnenos Doukas (1237-42) 17 45. Type D aspron trachy nomisma in billon of John III (1246-54) 18 46. Type I aspron trachy nomisma in billon of John III (1246-54) 18 47. Aspron trachy nomisma in billon of Theodore II (1254-58) 19 48. Type 25 copper trachy of Michael VIII (1259-82) 19 viii 49. Steatite icon with three military saints (12th century) 20 50. Type III gold hyperpyron of Michael VIII (1259-82) 21 51. Type 8 copper trachy of Michael VIII (1259-82) 21 52. Type 9 copper trachy of Michael VIII (1259-82) 21 53. Type 11 copper trachy of Michael VIII (1259-82) 22 54. Type 19 copper trachy of Michael VIII (1259-82) 22 55. Type 38 copper trachy of Michael VIII (1259-82) 22 56. Type 43 copper trachy of Michael VIII (1259-82) 23 57. Type 53 copper trachy of Michael VIII (1259-82) 23 58. Class 2 copper trachy of Andronikos II (1282-1328) 24 59. Class 2 copper trachy of Andronikos II (1282-1328 ) 24 60.