Emergent Identities in the African Diaspora: “The Bocas Way” By Jerry J. Howard Jr. A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Anthropology in the Graduate Division of the University of California, Berkeley Committee in charge: Professor Laurie A. Wilkie, Chair Professor Rosemary A. Joyce Professor Ugo Nwokeji Spring 2014 1 Abstract Emergent Identities in Bocas del Toro, Panama: Diaspora “The Bocas Way” By Jerry J. Howard Jr. Doctor of Philosophy in Anthropology University of California, Berkeley Professor Laurie Wilkie, Chair This dissertation is an example of community-engaged scholarship. Working with descendant communities in Bocas del Toro, I have conducted ethnographic and oral historical accounts, archival research, and archaeological excavations. My work combines these sources to trace how identities are created, maintained, and change over time. I argue for the importance of social context in identity formation and explore how identity in Bocas del Toro is often expressed through foodways. Today Bocas del Toro, Panama is a diverse racial and ethnic gumbo that has produced a unique Afro-creole culture. The culture area primarily consists of self- identified Afro-Antilleans, but with important contributions from Latino, Chinese, indigenous Panamanians and wealthy White European and American retirees and adventurers. Within the written history of this fascinating culture there are many silences and unanswered questions regarding the early Afro-Antillean inhabitants. My research offers insight into the chronology and components of the present-day culture and explains current demographic trends as well as the local culture history. My research further offers insight into the interactions and trade spheres that developed and supported the early post contact inhabitants during a time when neither the Spanish nor the English had firm control over the region. i Dedication I dedicate this dissertation to my father. From an early age he instilled in me a desire to succeed at what ever tasks I was given. Without his support and guidance I would not be where I am today. This work is also dedicated to my partner and three children, who have patiently been by my side for my entire student career. Thank you for all of your love, support, help, encouragement and dedication. I could not have accomplished as much as I have without your support and understanding. This is a tribute to the five of you. ii Table of Contents Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..1 Dedication…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..i List of Figures………………………………………………………………………………………………........iv List of Tables………………………………………………………………………………………………………v Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………………………vi Chapter #1: Introduction Geographical Location……………………………………………………………………………2 Historical Bocas……………………………………………………………………………………..2 My Personal Experiences with Marginalization……………………………………….6 Ethnographic Encounters……………………………………………………………………….7 The Structure of This Dissertation…………………………………………………………12 Chapter #2: Intersections of Difference: Formulating An Approach to African Diaspora Research The Early Relationship........................................................................................................13 Blank Slate, Africanisms, and Resistance....................................................................18 Civil Rights and Academia.................................................................................................20 African American Studies in the 1980’s......................................................................23 African American Studies in the 1990’s......................................................................24 Revisiting the Discipline.....................................................................................................28 The Notion of Diaspora.......................................................................................................29 Conclusion: Race, Continuity, and Diaspora..............................................................31 Chapter #3: Historical Development of African American Archaeology Beginnings in Acculturation.............................................................................................36 Plantation Archaeology and the Search for African Continuity........................38 Approaches to Cultural Transformations...................................................................40 African Diaspora, Community, and Black Feminist Archaeologies..................45 Chapter #4: Archaeological Encounters The Fieldwork.........................................................................................................................54 2009 Field Season: Exploring the Site..........................................................................55 2010 Field Season: Mapping, Magnetometry, and sampling..............................57 2011 Field Season: Pinpointed Geophysics...............................................................59 2012 Field Season: Excavating the Iglesias Homestead.......................................60 2012 Excavation Units in Detail..................................................................................... 62 Laboratory Analysis.............................................................................................................68 Curation.....................................................................................................................................71 Chapter #5: Discussion and Future Directions Definition od Diaspora........................................................................................................73 Three Approaches to African Diaspora Research...................................................74 Somos Piratas.........................................................................................................................75 iii Bananas and Cultural Transformations......................................................................75 Getting to Know Bocas........................................................................................................76 An Ethnographic Approach to African Diaspora Archaeology..........................77 Archaeology as a Political Tactic….................................................................................80 Racialized Systems................................................................................................................81 Pedestrian Survey, Archives, and Ethnography.......................................................83 Drago Historic Cemetery: Diaspora as Practice.......................................................86 Artifact Interpretations......................................................................................................87 Conclusions..............................................................................................................................90 Bibliography...............................................................................................................................................92 Appendices...............................................................................................................................................110 iv List of Figures Figure 1: PRONAT Land Titling Survey 2008 Figure 2: 1864 Map of the Bocas del Toro Archipelago Figure 3: Isla Colon Bocas del Toro, Panama Figure 4: Starfish Beach Resort Development Plan Figure 5: Boca del Drago Total Station Survey Core Figure 6: 1914 Development Plan for Boca del Drago Figure 7: 2009 Posthole Survey Figure 8: 2010 Magnetometry Surveys and Unit Locations Figure 9: 2009 Pedestrian and GPS Survey Figure 10: 2011 Magnetometry Grids Figure 11: Iglesias 1 Magnetometry Survey Figure 12: Iglesias Property Lines and Oral Historical Knowledge of Homesteads Figure 13: Wood Post from Historic Foundation Figure 14: 2012 Iglesias Excavations with Drago Total Station Core Figure 15: Stratigraphic profiles of Units 49, 50, and 51 Figure 16: Illustration of Low Earthen Mounds at Sitio Drago Figure 17: Unit 50, 52, and 53, 55 Damages from Weather Issues Figure 18: Unit 52, 53, 55, and 57 Excavation Profiles Figure 19: Perspectives or Approaches to Diaspora Figure 20: Electric Resistivity from Sitio Drago Figure 21: Resistivity and Topography Overlay Figure 22: Brightly Colored Imported Historic Ceramics Figure 23: Brightly Colored Caribbean Houses of Bocas v List of Tables Table 1: Slave Trade Data Table 2: Distribution of Identified Chordata Classes Table 3: Genera and Species of Fish Identified by Unit Table 4: Mammals Across All Analyzed Levels Table 5: Distribution of Reptiles Table 6: List of Historic Ceramic Color Variations Table 7: Vessel Type of Historic Imported Ceramics Table 8: Locally made Ceramics compared with Historic Imported Ceramics Table 9: Fish Genera represented in different time period Table 10: List of Contributors vi Acknowledgements The pages of this dissertation hold far more than the culmination of years of research. These pages capture the relationships of the many kind and inspiring people I have met since beginning my graduate work. The list is long, but I cherish each contribution to my development as a scholar and teacher: I would like to begin by expressing my deepest gratitude to my dissertation chair Laurie Wilkie, for her encouraging words, thoughtful criticism, time and attention during busy semesters. I would also like to thank my academic