Mughals at War: Babur, Akbar and the Indian Military Revolution, 1500 - 1605 A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Andrew de la Garza Graduate Program in History The Ohio State University 2010 Dissertation Committee: John F. Guilmartin, Advisor; Stephen Dale; Jennifer Siegel Copyright by Andrew de la Garza 2010 Abstract This doctoral dissertation, Mughals at War: Babur, Akbar and the Indian Military Revolution, examines the transformation of warfare in South Asia during the foundation and consolidation of the Mughal Empire. It emphasizes the practical specifics of how the Imperial army waged war and prepared for war—technology, tactics, operations, training and logistics. These are topics poorly covered in the existing Mughal historiography, which primarily addresses military affairs through their background and context— cultural, political and economic. I argue that events in India during this period in many ways paralleled the early stages of the ongoing “Military Revolution” in early modern Europe. The Mughals effectively combined the martial implements and practices of Europe, Central Asia and India into a model that was well suited for the unique demands and challenges of their setting. ii Dedication This document is dedicated to John Nira. iii Acknowledgments I would like to thank my advisor, Professor John F. Guilmartin and the other members of my committee, Professors Stephen Dale and Jennifer Siegel, for their invaluable advice and assistance. I am also grateful to the many other colleagues, both faculty and graduate students, who helped me in so many ways during this long, challenging process. iv Vita 1986................................................................Georgetown Preparatory School 1991................................................................B.A. Journalism, University of Houston 2003................................................................B.A. History, University of Houston 2006................................................................M.A. History, The Ohio State University 2006 to present ..............................................PhD Student and Graduate Teaching Associate, Department of History, The Ohio State University Fields of Study Major Field: History Minor Fields: Military History, South Asia, Early Modern Europe v Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgments............................................................................................................ ivv Vita ...................................................................................................................................... v Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1: A Mughal Military Revolution? ....................................................................... 8 Chapter 2: Changing Ways of War ................................................................................... 36 Chapter 3: Tools of War - Weapons, Equipment and Technology ................................. 103 Chapter 4: Waging War – Tactics and Operations ......................................................... 133 Chapter 5: Learning War - Organization, Recruitment and Training ............................. 196 Chapter 6: Supporting War - Organization, Logistics and Non-Combat Operations ..... 241 Chapter 7: An Unfinished Revolution ........................................................................... 279 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 307 References ....................................................................................................................... 314 vi Introduction The Mughal Empire was one of the great powers of the early modern era. It eventually grew to include almost the entirety of South Asia, from Afghanistan to the southern tip of India and from the Indus River to the frontiers of Burma. It accounted for more than a fifth of the world’s total economic output. This great expansion in both political and economic wealth was due in large part to success on the battlefield. The Mughal Empire was a conquest state dominated by its military elite, with a government where military and civilian administration were closely interconnected. It devoted a substantial portion of its total resources to expansion and defense. War and readiness for war were essential elements in the shaping of the Mughals’ political, social and cultural identity. Despite these basic facts there have only been a handful of books dedicated to Mughal military history ever written, with a gap of nearly a century between William Irvine’s colonial-era study and the works of later scholars like Jos Gommans and Dirk Kolff. Most general works on the Empire devote relatively little space to military matters, and even dedicated works of military history in this period primarily address background and context—how an army was funded, its social and cultural foundations, the political implications of its expenses and actions. There has been little exploration of how the Mughals and their enemies actually fought. 1 The primary purpose of this work is to bridge that gap. It explores the creation of a new military system by the Empire’s founder, Babur, its continued evolution under successors like Humayun and the Afghan usurper Sher Shah Suri and its growth into a mature institution during the reign of Akbar. The emphasis is on the practical aspects of Mughal warfare—technology, tactics, operations, recruitment, training and logistics. I argue that events in India during this period in many ways paralleled the early stages of the ongoing “Military Revolution” in early modern Europe. The Mughals effectively combined the martial implements and practices of Europe, Central Asia and India into a model that was well suited for the particular demands and challenges of their setting. Contrary to conventional wisdom based on the idea of Western exceptionalism, South Asia during this era was no backwater. It was a center of military innovation and achievement. Likewise, the Mughal Empire was not simply a loosely confederated medieval kingdom expanded to enormous size. It was a highly capable and organized early modern state, as evidenced by its successful integration of new concepts and technology and its mastery of complex systems. This dissertation addresses a number of key questions: • Technology: From what sources did the Mughals acquire new technology? How was it integrated and implemented? How did it affect tactics and the conduct of war? • Tactics: How exactly did the Mughals conduct battles? How were these processes learned and/or invented? Did they change over time? • Operations: How did the Mughals manage campaigns and other events larger than a single battle? 2 • Recruitment and training: Who fought in the Mughal army? How were they recruited and organized? How were they trained? How was military knowledge preserved and transmitted? • Logistics and support: How did the Mughals support their forces in the field? How were weapons, equipment and other supplies manufactured or procured? • Comparisons: India experienced a revolution in military affairs under the Mughals. How similar was this process to the European “Military Revolution?” How did it differ? Why did India and the Mughals evolve differently and why did they fail to reach the “mature stage” of their military and political transformations as Europe would do in the 18th century and beyond? The text starts with a chapter on theory. The second chapter is devoted to narrative. The succeeding chapters are thematic, covering different facets of the Mughal military system. • Chapter 1 places the Mughals within the context of existing theory and literature. It discusses the evolution of concepts such as the Military Revolution, Western Way of War and Gunpowder Empires and how those theories support the idea of emerging European exceptionalism in the early modern era and corresponding qualitative deficiencies in contemporary non-Western military establishments. It also examines the first efforts to expand the Military Revolution narrative to include similar events in Asia. I assess the military historiography of South Asia in general and of the Mughals in particular and argue that this body of work has two important flaws. It mostly focuses on the context of warfare instead of its actual execution, and it greatly underestimates the military achievements of the 3 Mughal Empire and the magnitude of the revolution in military affairs that took place in India during its foundation and consolidation. • Chapter 2 relates the essential narrative of the early Mughal Empire. It sets the stage, describing the important developments in military technology and practice in Europe, Central Asia and other parts of the world that would greatly influence later events in India. It recounts the career of Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, recounting his growth as a commander and his eventual adoption of new technology and tactics. The chapter describes Babur’s conquest of India, the reversals suffered