Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized This report has not undergone the review accorded to official World Bank publications. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of the World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Acknowledgement We would like to thank Australia, Denmark, the European Union, France, Ireland,the Netherlands, New Zealand, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States for their kind contributions to improving the livelihoods and food security of the poorest and most vulnerable people in Myanmar. Their support to the Livelihoods and Food Security Trust Fund (LIFT) is gratefully acknowledged. Disclaimer This document has been produced with financial assistance from Australia, Denmark, the European Union, France, Ireland,the Netherlands, New Zealand, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States. The views expressed herein can in no way be taken to reflect the official opinion of the European Union or the governments of Australia, Denmark, France, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States. CONTENTS Executive Summary ........................................................... i Livelihood Choices and Outcomes ................................................................................................i What Affects What People Do ....................................................................................................... ii Coping Strategies ............................................................................................................................... iii Social Relations .................................................................................................................................. iii External Assistance .......................................................................................................................... iv Recommendations ............................................................................................................................. v Chapter One: Introduction ............................................... 1 Analytical Framework ...................................................................................................................... 2 Methodology ......................................................................................................................................... 2 Report Structure ................................................................................................................................. 7 Chapter Two: What Do People Do? Livelihoods Choices & Outcomes ........................................................................ 9 Overall Changes ............................................................. 10 Agriculture ......................................................................................................................................... 10 Good Returns .......................................................................................................................................... 10 Non‐farm diversification .............................................................................................................. 13 Migration& remittances ............................................................................................................... 16 Migration Increased ............................................................................................................................ 17 Migration patterns varied strongly by region ......................................................................... 17 Social networks were critical in shaping migration choices ............................................ 18 Some Risk of Increasing Inequality ......................................................................................... 21 Marginalized poor: Those Unable to Benefit ........................................................................... 21 Vulnerable Poor: Those Able to Benefit but Only Slightly .................................................. 22 Perceptions of Mobility & Attitudes to Change .................................................................. 23 Chapter Three: What Affects What People Do? Spotlight on Labor, Land & Credit .................................................. 26 Labor ..................................................................................................................................................... 27 Trends in the labor market .............................................................................................................. 27 Impact on wages, payment conditions & agricultural patterns ...................................... 28 Impact on mechanization ................................................................................................................. 31 Land and Natural Resources ...................................................................................................... 33 Land Registration ................................................................................................................................. 33 Township .................................................................................................................................................. 35 Risk of exclusion from land markets by virtue of… ................................................................ 35 Land Disputes ......................................................................................................................................... 40 Natural Resource Management ..................................................................................................... 43 Access to Credit ................................................................................................................................ 45 Chapter Four: Coping Strategies ..................................... 48 Types of Problems and Shocks .................................................................................................. 49 Coping Strategies ............................................................................................................................. 50 Household/Individual Responses .................................................................................................. 50 Community Responses ........................................................................................................................ 50 Government Responses ...................................................................................................................... 53 Chapter Five: Social Relations and Institutions................ 54 Social Relations ................................................................................................................................ 55 Social Capital .......................................................................................................................................... 55 Crime .......................................................................................................................................................... 58 Engagement with the State ......................................................................................................... 59 Increasing voice from Communities ............................................................................................. 59 Pressure on Government Institutions .......................................................................................... 61 Implications for Social Relations ................................................................................................... 62 Village Institutions .......................................................................................................................... 63 Village Tract Administrators vs Village Administrators ..................................................... 64 Implications for Social Relations ................................................................................................... 65 Village Development Support Committees ................................................................................ 67 Chapter Six: External Assistance ..................................... 68 Overall Patterns ............................................................................................................................... 69 Government Assistance ................................................................................................................ 70 Decision Making Mechanisms ......................................................................................................... 71 Community perceptions ..................................................................................................................... 74 Donor Programs ..............................................................................................................................