ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I owe a deep debt of gratitude to the Institute of Developing Economies (IDE- JETRO) for the opportunity to conduct a research project on the ‘tourism and regional integration in Southeast Asia’ from July 2012 to January 2013. I would like to express my sincere appreciation to the staff and researchers of the institute for their warm hospitality. My knowledge and research experience have been enriched thanks to the large pool of diverse experts working on various issues in different regions and countries. I am especially indebted to my research counterpart, Ms. Maki Aoki, and research advisor, Ms. Etsuyo Arai, for their constructive comments and encouragement throughout the research writing process. I would like to thank Ms. Naomi Hatsukano and Mr. Makishima Minoru for introducing me to this program and their continued support during my stay at IDE. In addition, I am grateful to IDE research fellows, especially Mr. Nobuhiro Aizawa, Mr. Takahiro Fukunishi, Mr. Kenmei Tsubota, Mr. Kiyoyasu Tanaka, Mr. Yasushi Ueki and Mr. Kazu Hayakawa for their time and friendship. I would like to thank all the staff members working at the International Exchange Division, Research Coordination Office, and Library for always being approachable and responsive and for their excellent work in making the life of visiting fellows here comfortable and enjoyable. In particular, I am indebted to Mr. Takao Tsuneishi, Ms. Chisato Ishii, Mr. Tatsufumi Yamagata, Mr. Koshi Yamada and Mr. Taiki Koga for their support and friendship. Many thanks also go to all the visiting fellows (Ms. Gao, Prof. Scarlett, Prof. Somchai, Prof. Ramaswamy and Prof. Khan) for spending time together sharing stories and experiences. i TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………………………………………………………………i LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES………………………………………………………….................................iv SUMMARY………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. v INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 1 REGIONALISM AND TOURISM IN SOUTHEAST ASIA: A REVIEW OF LITERATURE Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................... 4 1.1. Regionalism in Southeast Asia ............................................................................................................. 4 1.1.1. Definition of regionalism ............................................................................................................... 4 1.1.2. Driving forces of regionalism ...................................................................................................... 6 1.1.3. The objectives of regionalism ...................................................................................................... 6 1.1.4. Regionalism in Southeast Asia .................................................................................................... 7 1.2. Tourism in Southeast Asia ................................................................................................................... 12 1.2.1. Definition of tourism ..................................................................................................................... 12 1.2.2. Driving forces of tourism ............................................................................................................ 13 1.2.3. Roles of tourism ............................................................................................................................. 1 3 1.2.4. History of tourism in Southeast Asia ....................................................................................... 14 1.2.5.The impacts of tourism in Southeast Asia ............................................................................... 16 1.2.6. The state and tourism development .......................................................................................... 20 1.2.7. Multi-stakeholder partnership .................................................................................................... 21 1.3.Tourism and Regionalism ...................................................................................................................... 21 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................... 22 CHAPTER 2 TOURISM DEVELOPMENT POLICY IN SOUTHEAST ASIA Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 23 2.1. ASEAN: Emerging Global Tourism Destination ........................................................................ 23 2.2. Tourism Development Policies .......................................................................................................... 29 2.2.1. Brunei ................................................................................................................................................ 29 2.2.2. Cambodia .......................................................................................................................................... 30 2.2.3. Indonesia ........................................................................................................................................... 32 2.2.4. Lao PDR............................................................................................................................................ 32 2.2.5. Malaysia ............................................................................................................................................ 34 2.2.6. Myanmar ........................................................................................................................................... 35 2.2.7. The Philippines ............................................................................................................................... 36 2.2.8. Singapore .......................................................................................................................................... 38 2.2.9. Thailand ............................................................................................................................................ 39 2.2.10. Vietnam ........................................................................................................................................... 41 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................... 43 CHAPTER 3 REGIONAL COOPERATION AND TOURISM DEVELOPMENT Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 44 3.1. Regional Tourism Cooperation .......................................................................................................... 44 3.2. ASEAN Cooperation Framework ...................................................................................................... 46 3.3. Sub‐Regional Cooperation Framework ........................................................................................ 49 3.3.1. BIMP-East ASEAN Growth Area (EAGA) Cooperation ................................................. 50 ii 3.3.2. The Singapore-Johor-Riau (SIJORI) Triangle ...................................................................... 50 3.3.3. The Indonesia-Malaysia-Thailand Growth Triangle (IMT-GT) ..................................... 51 3.3.4. Cambodia-Lao PDR-Vietnam (CLV) Growth Triangle .................................................... 52 3.3.5. Cambodia-Lao PDR-Thailand (CLT) Triangle .................................................................... 52 3.3.6. The Growth Quadrangle (China, Lao PDR, Thailand and Myanmar) .......................... 53 3.3.7. Ayeyawady-Chao Phraya-Mekong Economic Cooperation Strategy (ACMECS) ... 53 3.3.8. CLMV Tourism Cooperation ..................................................................................................... 53 3.3.9. Greater Mekong Sub-region (GMS) ........................................................................................ 54 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................... 58 CHAPTER 4 REGIONALISM‐TOURISM LINKAGES Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 60 4.1. Regionalism Promotes Tourism ......................................................................................................... 60 4.1.1. Political will and commitment ................................................................................................... 60 4.1.2. Institutional and regulatory development ............................................................................... 63 4.1.3. Sub-regional cooperation framework ...................................................................................... 65 4.1.4. Public-private partnerships ......................................................................................................... 65 4.1.5.Tourism's collective attractiveness ...........................................................................................