Office of Water (4305T) December 2010 Assessment of the Extra-Enteric Behavior of Fecal Indicator Organisms in Ambient Waters Disclaimer Mention of commercial products, trade names, or services in this document or in the references and/or endnotes cited in this document does not convey, and should not be interpreted as conveying, official EPA approval, endorsement, or recommendation. December 2010 i Acknowledgments Questions concerning this document should be addressed to the EPA Work Assignment Manager: John Ravenscroft USEPA Headquarters Office of Water, Office of Science and Technology 1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW Mail Code: 4304T Washington, DC 20460 Phone: 202-566-1101 Email: [email protected] Preparation of this document was conducted under EPA Contract EP-C-07-036 to Clancy Environmental Consultants, Inc., a Tetra Tech Company. The following individuals contributed to the development of the report: Co-lead writer: Jeffrey Rosen Clancy Environmental Consultants, Inc. Co-lead writer: Mark Gibson Clancy Environmental Consultants, Inc. Co-lead writer: Timothy Bartrand Clancy Environmental Consultants, Inc. Alexis Castrovinci ICF International Jennifer Clancy Clancy Environmental Consultants, Inc. Mary Clark ICF International Elizabeth Dederick ICF International Karen Fox Clancy Environmental Consultants, Inc. Dean Gouveia ICF International Kelly Hammerle ICF International Jose Sobrinho Clancy Environmental Consultants, Inc. Laura Tuhela-Reuning ICF International Jennifer Welham ICF International December 2010 ii Contents DISCLAIMER ................................................................................................................................................................... I ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................................................................. II CONTENTS ................................................................................................................................................................... III LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES .....................................................................................................................................V 1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................................ 1 2. BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 5 2.1 Background ................................................................................................................................................ 5 2.2 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 5 3. AMBIENT FACTORS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON INDICATOR PRESENCE AND BEHAVIOR .................................... 11 3.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 11 3.2 Environmental Parameters that Potentially Affect the Behavior of Fecal Indicators in Different Geographic Regions ................................................................................................................................. 12 3.3 Effects of Environmental Parameters on Fecal Indicators in Different Geographic Regions .................. 13 3.3.1 The Great Lakes Region ................................................................................................................. 13 3.3.2 Florida ............................................................................................................................................. 15 3.3.3 Mississippi ...................................................................................................................................... 17 3.3.4 California ........................................................................................................................................ 17 3.3.5 Hawaii ............................................................................................................................................. 19 3.3.6 Guam ............................................................................................................................................... 20 3.3.7 Puerto Rico...................................................................................................................................... 21 3.3.8 Australia and New Zealand ............................................................................................................. 22 3.4 Indigenous Populations of Fecal-Associated Organisms ......................................................................... 23 3.5 Summary .................................................................................................................................................. 24 4. THE ROLE OF PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, AND BIOLOGICAL FACTORS IN THE EXTRA-ENTERIC BEHAVIOR OF FECAL INDICATOR ORGANISMS IN AMBIENT WATERS, SEDIMENTS, AND SOILS ..................................................... 26 4.1 Background .............................................................................................................................................. 26 4.2 Section Contents ...................................................................................................................................... 27 4.3 Description of Studies Examining Extra-Enteric Occurrence and Survival ............................................. 27 4.4 Classification of Environments ................................................................................................................ 30 4.5 Factors Influencing the Occurrence, Persistence, and Growth of Fecal Indicator Organisms ................. 31 4.6 Evidence of Extra-Enteric Growth ........................................................................................................... 33 4.6.1 Direct Observation of Growth ......................................................................................................... 34 4.6.2 Indirect Evidence of Growth ........................................................................................................... 37 4.6.3 Assessment of Conditions Supporting Growth and Identification of Data Gaps ............................ 37 4.7 Evaluation of Factors Contributing to Occurrence, Persistence, or Growth of Indicator Organisms ...... 39 4.7.1 General Parameters ......................................................................................................................... 39 4.7.2 Context-Related Parameters ............................................................................................................ 49 4.8 Modeling .................................................................................................................................................. 54 4.9 Summary and Conclusions....................................................................................................................... 55 5. ALTERNATIVE INDICATORS FOR TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL REGIONS ..................................................... 58 5.1 Alternative Indicators of Fecal Contamination: Microbiological ............................................................ 58 5.1.1 Clostridium perfringens .................................................................................................................. 58 5.1.2 Bacteroides ...................................................................................................................................... 59 5.1.3 Bifidobacteria .................................................................................................................................. 60 5.1.4 Coliphages ...................................................................................................................................... 60 5.1.5 Bacteroides Phages ......................................................................................................................... 62 5.2 Alternative Indicators of Fecal Contamination: Chemical Biomarkers ................................................... 62 5.2.1 Fecal Steroids .................................................................................................................................. 62 December 2010 iii 5.2.2 Optical Brighteners ......................................................................................................................... 63 5.2.3 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products .................................................................................. 63 5.3 Summary .................................................................................................................................................. 64 6. REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................................................... 65 APPENDIX A .............................................................................................................................................................. A-1 APPENDIX B............................................................................................................................................................... B-1 APPENDIX C .............................................................................................................................................................