MAZU WORSHIP IN LATE IMPERIAL CHINA: GENDER, POLITICS, RELIGION, AND IDENTITY CONSTRUCTION By YANCHAO ZHANG A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2018 © 2018 Yanchao Zhang To people I love ACKNOWLEDGMENTS As this dissertation has taken shape over the past few years, some individuals and organizations have provided all kinds of support for me throughout its different stages. Since I started my doctorial study in Religion Department of University in 2011, I have received full support from my advisor, Dr. Mario Poceski. I deeply appreciate all his helps in both academic and personal lives. During the past few years, I took many courses with Dr. Poceski that laid foundation for my dissertation project. In addition, he continued offering guidance and feedback throughout my dissertation research and writing. Dr. Poceski also read and commented in detail on earlier versions of my dissertation. His consistent support and helpful feedback were crucial in completing my dissertation. I consider myself extremely fortunate to have him as my advisor. I would also like to thank the other wonderful members of my dissertation committee for supporting me and working with me since I started my dissertation proposal. First, I own a big debt of gratitude to Dr. Richard Wang for helping me with translating the classic Chinese texts featuring Mazu into English. He also read and commented on the chapter of Daoist canonization. I have benefited a lot from his rich knowledge on Daoism and Chinese culture. I am also deeply grateful to Dr. Trysh Travis, whose class on gender theory has been an inspiration for my comparing perspectives on Chinese goddess worship and Western feminist spirituality, and I am particularly thankful to her for guarding me in this direction. Last but not the least, Dr. Xiao Ying deserves special mention for providing insightful comments on my dissertation project and for taking time to discuss modern Chinese culture and gender study with me. Without all this help and guidance, my dissertation project would have been far less fruitful and well-rounded. 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...............................................................................................................4 ABSTRACT .....................................................................................................................................7 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................9 Historical Background ............................................................................................................10 Survey of Existing Scholarship ..............................................................................................14 Objectives, Sources, and Methods ..........................................................................................19 Organization of the Dissertation .............................................................................................21 2 STATE CANONIZATION OF THE GOODDESS: AN IMPERIAL METAPHOR ............25 Granting of Official Titles ......................................................................................................26 Construction of Official Temples Devoted to Mazu ..............................................................41 Incorporation into the Register of Sacrifices ..........................................................................45 Imperial Metaphor ..................................................................................................................52 Concluding Remarks ..............................................................................................................57 3 LOCALIST CONFUCIAN PROMOTION OF MAZU WORSHIP ......................................60 Texts Compiled by Confucian Literati ...................................................................................61 Mazu as Imperial Protector .....................................................................................................68 Reconstructing Mazu’s Family Lineage .................................................................................77 Filial Daughter ........................................................................................................................86 Local Elites’ Patronage of Mazu Temples ..............................................................................93 Concluding Remarks ..............................................................................................................98 4 CONFUCIAN CRITIQUES AND ALTERNATIVE PERSPECTIVES .............................101 Missing Elements ..................................................................................................................102 Alternative Perspectives and Confucian Critiques of the Mazu Cult ...................................106 Gender Centered Critiques ...................................................................................................112 Concluding Remarks ............................................................................................................120 5 DAOIST CANONIZATION OF THE MAZU CULT .........................................................122 Daoist Scriptures for the Worship of Mazu ..........................................................................123 Daoist Liturgical Texts Featuring Mazu ...............................................................................131 Jiao Ritual Dedicated to Mazu ..............................................................................................139 The Daoist Management of the Mazu Temples ....................................................................145 The General Pattern of the Interaction between Daoism and Popular Religion ...................151 5 Concluding Remarks ............................................................................................................155 6 WOMEN’S APPROACHES TO THE MAZU CULT .........................................................157 Gender Study and Goddess Worship ....................................................................................159 Women’s Experiences and Popular Religion .......................................................................166 Textual Sources ....................................................................................................................177 The Theme of Resisting Marriage ........................................................................................182 Mazu as Protector of Women and Children .........................................................................193 Women’s Participation in Cultic Activities ..........................................................................201 Concluding Remarks ............................................................................................................213 7 CONCLUSIONS ..................................................................................................................217 APPENDIX: GLOSSARY...........................................................................................................228 LIST OF REFERENCES .............................................................................................................236 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH .......................................................................................................250 6 Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy MAZU WORSHIP IN LATE IMPERIAL CHINA: GENDER, POLITICS, RELIGION, AND IDENTITY CONSTRUCTION By Yanchao Zhang December 2018 Chair: Mario Poceski Major: Religion This dissertation explores the worship of Mazu, one of the most popular goddesses in traditional Chinese religion, from its formative period (c. 960) to its later transformations in late imperial China. More specifically, the dissertation tracks the evolution of Mazu from a minor regional deity worshiped by fishermen and sailors along the southeast coast of China, into a major goddess occupying a central place in the pantheon sanctioned by the state and the religious elites. In the course of this historical transformation, various groups interpreted the origin, roles, and salvific potency of the goddess in accordance with their differing agendas and backgrounds. Namely, the imperial governments promoted Mazu as the goddess of meritorious service to the state. For their part, male Confucian scholars constructed the goddess as an embodiment of certain key elements of Confucian values and as an ideal model of Chinese womanhood. Along the same lines, Daoists reimaged Mazu, emphasizing her role as a universal savior whose efficacy emanated from the Daoist cosmological system. As a multi-functional goddess, Mazu also was venerated by female devotees as a motherly goddess who can provide protection for women and respond to their domestic and everyday concerns. Developing this last thread, the study examines the way the Mazu’s cult shaped Chinese women’s social, political, and religious status. 7 By tracing different images and functions of Mazu, as constructed by and for different groups, the dissertation challenges the normative images of Mazu that historical texts and official titles have constructed. These constructions