“Face” as Cultural Performance in Chinese: Cases of Requesting and Declining DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By HAO-HSIANG LIAO, M.A. Graduate Program in East Asian Languages and Literatures The Ohio State University 2012 Dissertation Committee: Professor Galal Walker, Advisor Professor Mari Noda Professor Charles Quinn Copyright by Hao-hsiang Liao 2012 Abstract Face, a self-image that each member of a society seems to care about, is a cultural performance. Performance refers to situated behaviors that define an individual’s successful functioning in a society. Face can be as explicit as defending yourself in a debate or as implicit as denying a request from a friend. This dissertation investigates how “face” is presented, maintained, negotiated, and how it functions in the cases of requesting and declining in Chinese culture. To be more specific, this dissertation explores “face” in four situations – making a request of your teacher, making a request of a friend, denying a request from your teacher, and denying a request from a friend – and depicts the features of these four situations from both the native speakers’ and the Chinese learners’ perspectives. Based on the results of the research, I argue “face” as a theme in requesting and declining as it runs through the considerations and strategies people resort to in these situations. The considerations are face-based and they correspond to the face-saving themes. In Chinese, more specifically, it is lian on mianzi because the speaker, based on his social status, power, and ability, aims to maintain the semblance of integrity. ii Last, I provide pedagogical approaches to “face” in C2, both in the beginning and intermediate levels. In the beginning level, I come up with teaching plans for the purpose of classroom practice. In the intermediate level, I design explanations, drills, exercises, and improvisations to show how teachers can incorporate “face” into their instruction and provide learners with opportunities to go through the learning cycle. Exploring “face” in cases of requesting and declining, I hope to bring the field’s attention to the fact that C2 learners’ exposure to “face” in Chinese culture begins on their first day of class when they ask their teacher to repeat what he/she says. Since there is no “faceless” communication, how to train C2 learners to identify, to become perceptive observers, and then to perform “face” successfully over the course of their study becomes a challenge for all Chinese language teachers. iii Acknowledgements I wish to thank my adviser, Galal Walker, for being so inspiring during my graduate studies at The Ohio State University. Taking his courses and simply talking to him individually are the most intellectual moments in my life. His unconventional view of pedagogy not only opens my eyes but also pushes me to think what I am doing in class. I thank Professor Mari Noda and Professor Charles Quinn for their continuous support for me. Professor Noda shows me the genuine spirit of an established languist. Her portrayal of a professional as well as a sensee often warms my heart. The profound knowledge Professor Quinn demonstrates shows me what a scholar should be like. Talking to him is always delightful and enjoyable. I am indebted to all the professors, teachers, and language specialists who share their thoughts and comments on my dissertation. Their unconditional generosity means a lot to me. I am grateful for all my students during my almost nine years of teaching at The Ohio State University, Harvard University, and Williams College. Their kind words and encouragement are the best motivation for me to better my profession. Last but not least, my heartfelt gratitude goes to my family – my father, my mother, my sister, my brother, and my grandmother who is now in heaven. My every accomplishment would not be possible without their love and support. iv Vita August 8, 1976……………………………… Born, Taipei County, Taiwan. 1998………………………………………… B.A. Foreign Languages and Literatures, National Tsing-Hua University, Taiwan. 2001………………………………………… M.A. Institute of Teaching Chinese as a Second Language, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan. 2003-2004………………………………….. Chinese Language Fellow, Williams College. 2004-2005………………………………….. Drill Instructor, Harvard University. 2005-2007………………………………….. Preceptor in Chinese, Harvard University. 2007-2012………………………………….. Graduate Teaching Assistant, Department of East Asian Languages and Literatures, The Ohio State University. 2012-present……………………………….. Visiting Lecturer in Chinese, Williams College. v Publications 1. Liao, Haohsiang. 2011. “Drill Practice and Performed Culture Pedagogy.” Taiwan Journal of Chinese as a Second Language, Vol 3, 33-52. Taipei: The Association of Teaching Chinese as a Second Language, published by Crane Publishing Company. 2. Liao, Haohsiang, trans. 2010. “Designing An Intensive Chinese Curriculum.” The Pedagogy of Performing Another Culture, 51-95. Hubei: Hubei jiaoyu chubanshe. 3. Liao, Haohsiang et al. 2010. “Performance-based Intermediate-level Material Design: The Chinese Way.” Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference and Workshops on Technology and Chinese Language Teaching, 145-153. National East Asian Languages Resource Center at The Ohio State University. 4. Liao, Haohsiang. 2009. “A Brief Introduction of the Chinese Language Pedagogy Program of the Ohio State University.” Journal of Teaching Chinese as a Second Language, Volume 1, 80-83, Taipei. 5. Feng, Shengli & Liao Haohsiang. 2005. “Conjunctions and Semantic Segments: Another Possibility of Drilling in an Advanced Chinese Course.” Proceedings of Operational Strategies and Pedagogy for Chinese Language Programs in the 21st Century, 60-62, Taipei. Fields of Study Major Field: East Asian Languages and Literatures, Chinese language pedagogy track. Minor Field: Chinese linguistics vi Table of Contents Abstract……………………………………………………………………………. ii Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………... iv Vita………………………………………………………………………………… v List of Abbreviations……………………………………………………………… xii List of Figures…………………………………………………………………….. xiii Page Introduction……………………………………………………………………… 1 1. Pedagogical Background of Requesting and Declining………………………. 4 1.1 Pedagogical Background of Requesting………………………………….. 5 1.1.1 Definition of Requesting…………………………………………….. 8 1.1.2 Requesting in CFL Materials………………………………………... 10 1.2 Pedagogical Background of Declining……………………………………. 21 1.2.1 Definition of Declining……………………………………………… 31 1.2.2 Declining in CFL Materials………………………………………….. 32 1.2.3 Problems with Declining in CFL Materials…………………………. 41 1.3 Summary…………………………………………………………………. 43 2. Face, Performance, and Performed Culture Pedagogy………………………. 44 vii 2.1 Literature Review of Face ……………………………………………….. 44 2.1.1 Goffman’s Face..…………………………………………………….. 44 2.1.2 Brown and Levinson’s Politeness Strategies….…………………….. 46 2.1.3 Scollon and Scollon’s Intercultural Communication ……………….. 50 2.1.4 Hsien-chin Hu and the Mianzi/Lian Distinction…………………….. 52 2.1.5 Kwang-guo Hwang and the Mianzi/Lian Distinction……………….. 55 2.1.6 Summary…………………………………………………………….. 63 2.2 Chinese Concepts of Face………………………………………………… 64 2.3 Performance……………………………………………………………… 66 2.4 Performed Culture Pedagogy…………………………………………….. 69 2.4.1 Walker and Noda’s Cycle of Compiling C2 Memory ……………. 71 2.4.2 Kolb’s Learning Cycle ……………………………………………. 77 2.4.3 Instructional Cycle…………………………………………………. 81 2.5 Summary………………………………………………….……………… 89 3. Face in the Method of Requesting and Declining …………...…………........ 91 3.1 Motivation………………………………………………………………… 91 3.2 Participants and Procedures……………………………………………… 96 3.3 Survey Items……………………………………………………………… 97 3.3.1 Make a Request of Your Teacher………………………………… 98 3.3.2 Make a Request of a Friend………………………………………. 99 3.3.3 Deny a Request from Your Teacher……………………………… 100 3.3.4 Deny a Request from a Friend……………………………………. 100 4. Face in Requesting and Declining – Analysis and Discussion.……………… 102 4.1 Make a Request of Your Teacher…………………………………………. 102 4.1.1Features………………………………………………………………. 102 4.1.1.1 The Use of Address Terms……………………………………… 103 viii 4.1.1.2 The Expression of Apology………………………………………. 104 4.1.1.3 The Adoption of Polite Words…………………………………… 105 4.1.1.4 Favored Choices of Auxiliary Verbs…………………………….. 107 4.1.1.5 Summary…………………………………………………………. 108 4.1.2 “Face” in Making a Request of Your Teacher……………………….. 110 4.1.3 C2 Learners’ Deficiencies …………………………………………… 111 4.2 Make a Request of a Friend………………………………………………. 114 4.2.1 Features ……………………………………………………………… 115 4.2.1.1 The Use of Address Terms………………………………………. 115 4.2.1.2 The Expression of Thoughtfulness ……………………………… 117 4.2.1.3 The Adoption of Polite Words…………………………………… 121 4.2.1.4 Favored Choices of Auxiliary Verbs…………………………….. 123 4.2.1.5 Summary…………………………………………………………. 124 4.2.2 “Face” in Making a Request of a Friend………………………........... 127 4.2.3 C2 Learners’ Deficiencies …………………………………………… 128 4.3 Deny a Request from Your Teacher………………………………………. 133 4.3.1 Features…………………………………………………………….. 133 4.3.1.1 The Use of Address Terms……………………………………….. 133 4.3.1.2 The Expression of Apology……………………………………… 135 4.3.1.3 The Expression of Consideration and Appreciation…………….. 136 4.3.1.4 The Adoption of Hedges…………………………………………. 138 4.3.1.5 The Expression of Thoughtfulness ……………………………… 139 4.3.1.6 Summary…………………………………………………………. 142 4.3.2 “Face” in Denying a Request from Your Teacher……………………