Map 6 Asia Orientalis Compiled by M.U. Erdosy, 1997 Introduction Map 6 embraces four distinct regions: central Asia and the Indus valley, which had lengthy contacts with the Greeks and Romans; and Tibet and Chinese Turkestan, which had practically none. The first two entered Western consciousness through the eastward expansion of the Achaemenid empire, which brought them into the orbit of Greek geographical knowledge, and won them prominence as the theaters of Alexander the Great’s eastern campaigns. Although colonization in the wake of Macedonian conquests was short-lived, classical influence on the arts and crafts of the area, if not its religious and political institutions, remained prominent for centuries. Moreover, even though the Parthians and Sasanians effectively severed overland links between central Asia and the Mediterranean world, the Alexander legend helped preserve geographical information for posterity (albeit frequently in a distorted form), even if little in the way of fresh data was added until Late Roman times. By contrast, areas to the north and east of the Himalayas remained in effect terra incognita until the nineteenth century, when the heart of Asia first received serious exploration by westerners, mostly as a by-product of the “Great Game.” Despite the impressive lists of toponyms and ethnonyms found in Ptolemy’s Geography and Ammianus Marcellinus, few cities and tribes can be localized with any certitude, since ancient geographers not only lacked first-hand knowledge of the area, but were also hampered by a defective image of the world, which was sure to produce serious distortions in peripheral regions. As a result, the eastern half of Map 6 is largely devoid of identifiable sites (although it contributes extensively to the list of unlocated toponyms and ethnonyms), while the western half is densely populated. This is not to say that the historical topography of Pakistan and central Asia constitutes a closed chapter. Just how much is left to resolve can be appreciated by merely browsing through the literature generated by, say, Stein’s localization of the site of ῎Αορνος at Pir Sar (for a brief survey, Bosworth 1995, 178-80). The fact that many solutions were proposed by historians without first-hand field experience, or by archaeologists who ignored historical questions, has not helped; nor has the inaccessibility of some areas, and the chronic instability of others. These factors have prevented the verification of many recent hypotheses. Compilation of the Directory follows the principles set out in the introduction to Map 5, except that in citing Greek and Latin sources I have relied more heavily on modern treatments which either list textual references (note Renou 1925, 75-89; André 1986, 429-453), or mention them in the course of discussing the identification of certain toponyms or ethnonyms (note André 1980; Bosworth 1980; 1995; Casson 1989). This difference in approach is necessitated by the multitude of textual references, itself the product of the frequent recycling of information relating to Alexander’s exploits. I have, however, cited original sources directly if they are omitted from the lists just mentioned, or if the modern treatments either do not correctly identify a name, or take no account of the possibility that one name can cover a range of geographical features (Caucasus, for example). The most important physical changes since ancient times have been hydrological, and they are of a different order of magnitude from those experienced in either peninsular India or the Ganges valley. The two principal problems–debated for over a century–concern the movements of the R. Indus and its tributaries, and the location of the R. Oxus delta. I refrain from commenting extensively on the second problem, since both the Aral Sea and most of the Caspian Sea fall outside the scope of the Barrington Atlas. Suffice it to say that, even if the Oxus drained mostly into the Aral Sea in antiquity, the Uzboy channel connecting it to the Caspian could have carried some of its flow, and could have misled ancient authors into equating the channel with the principal branch. This may well explain why the Aral Sea remained unknown until Late Antiquity. Another explanation may be deduced from the shape and size of the Caspian Sea in Ptolemy’s system, which suggests that at least the eastern and southern shores of the Aral Sea were known, but were considered to belong to the Caspian. It should also be noted that several of the 78 MAP 6 ASIA ORIENTALIS left-bank tributaries of the Oxus no longer reach it now, but are lost in the sands of Bactria; their lower courses in antiquity can only be guessed at. The Indus and its tributaries are principal points of reference for all of Alexander’s historians, and their location in protohistoric times is vital to the map. Fortunately, with the advent of remote sensing techniques, and advances in archaeological surveying, the general outlines of the westward shift of the Indus system, and of the desiccation of the Ghaggar and Nara channels (representing the Vedic Sarasvatī), are clear. For this reason, I have adopted Wilhelmy’s scheme (1968; 1968a; 1969, summarized in Eggermont 1975; 1993) for both the palaeochannels of the Indus system and the ancient shoreline around the Indus delta. While the geographical outlines are clear and seldom contested, one historical issue does remain to be resolved, namely the channel of the Indus delta which Nearchos used as his outlet to the Arabian Sea. Here I cannot accept Eggermont’s preference for the eastern channel, in spite of his detailed arguments. Instead, I maintain that Nearchos must have used a branch of the western channel which emptied itself into the Gulf of Kutch at 68° longitude (just east of Pir Patho hill: see the map in Eggermont 1975, 31). Directory All place names are in India unless otherwise noted Abbreviations EIA A. Ghosh (ed.), An encyclopaedia of Indian archaeology. Volume 2: a gazetteer of explored and excavated sites in India, New Delhi, 1989 Avst. Avestan OPers. Old Persian Skt. Sanskrit Note: For commentary on Arrian references, see Bosworth 1980 (Books 1-3); 1995 (Books 4-5); and Hinüber 1985 (Book 8). For commentary on PME references, see Casson 1989. Names Grid Name Period Modern Name / Location References E5 Abali R people in hills of S Bihar Pliny, NH 6.67; McCrindle 1926, 139-40 C4 Abastanoi/ H/ IND / PAK Law 1943, 96-97; NPauly Sambastai H Skt.: Ambaṣṭha / Mekala § Megallae R Pliny, NH 6.73; Law 1943, 374 § Sabarcae H § Sabbas §Sabou §Subagrae L André 1986, 257 B4 Aberia R Indo-Greek province Ptol. 7.1.55; Law 1943, 79-81 above R. Indus delta PAK Skt.: Abhira-deśa A1 Abii HRL UZB Bosworth 1995, 13-15 C5 Abiria R hinterlands of Gujarat PME 41 coast Skt.: Abhirādeśa C3 Abisareis H Skt.: Abhisāra André 1980, 106; Bosworth 1995, 177-78 Acadira = Arigaion C3 Acutri? R people in Bajaur (cf. Pliny, NH 6.94 Arigaion) F5 Adamas? fl. R Subarnarekha (contra Ptol. 7.1.17, 41; Chandra 1977, 122 Vogel 1952a, 229) MAP 6 ASIA ORIENTALIS 79 Grid Name Period Modern Name / Location References D4 Adisdara R Ramnagar? Ptol. 7.1.53; Law 1943, 34 Skt.: Adhicchatra C3 Adrestae HRL Skt.: Aratta Bosworth 1995, 328-29 § A(n)dri RL André 1986, 141, 257 C3 Agalasseis/ H/ DiodSic 17.96; André 1986, 141, 257, 383 Agensonae HR (n. 290); Eggermont 1993, 23-25, 33 § Gesonae L F5 Aganagara? R Agradvīpa Ptol. 7.2.14; Law 1976, 112 Agensonae = Agalasseis F5 Agoranis fl. H Garai BAN Arrian 8.4.4 C3 Ahin Posh R AFG Ball 1982.17 C5 Ajabpura REIA C3 Akesinos/ HRL Chenab, as well as Strabo 15.1.18, 27; Renou 1925, 87; Sandabal fl. combined streams of R. André 1980, 102; 1986, 429; NPauly §Cantaba R Indus tributaries IND / Akesines 2 PAK Vedic / Skt.: Asiknī Akota =Minnagara? C3 Akra CHR PAK Allchin et al. 1986, 184 A3 Alexandria AFG See Map 3 B3 Alexandria HR Begram (cf. Kapisa) AFG Tarn 1951, 460-42; Bosworth 1980, 369-70; Fraser 1996, 140-51 B3 Alexandria/ RL/ Kandahar AFG IsidChar 19; Ptol. 6.20.4; AmmMarc Alexandropolis/ 23.6.72; Tarn 1951, 470-71; Cufis R André 1980, 120; 1986, 388 (n. 310); NPauly Alexandreia 7 Alexandria = Arachosiorum Oppidum A3 Alexandria Ariorum/ AFG See Map 98 Artacavan/ Harey B1 Alexandria Eschate HR Khojend TAJ Curtius 7.6.13; Ptol. 6.17.6; § Cyreschata RL Bosworth 1995, 15-17, 19 B2 Alexandria Oxiana? AFG See Map 99 A2 Alexandria/ TKM See Map 98 Antiochia/ Merv B4 Alexandria/ HR/ Khandewari? PAK Eggermont 1975, 69-77; Rhambakia H André 1980, 127-28; § Alexandropolis L Fraser 1996, 164-67, 178 §Arbis R André 1986, 276, 408 (n. 479) Ptol. 6.21.5 Alexandropolis = Alexandria B5 Alexandrou Limen/ H/ PAK Eggermont 1975, 33-45, 132-37; Portus Macedonum R André 1980, 127 §Abies R §Barbara R Casson 1989, 188 § Barce R André 1986, 383, 432 § Biblon R Philostratus, Vita Apollonii 3.53 § Paricea L ItMiller 788; Eggermont 1993, 116 § Xylinepolis R B2 Aliabad AFG See Map 99 B2 Altin Dilyar tepe AFG See Map 98 F5 Amystis fl. H Ajaya Arrian 8.4.5; Law 1976, 203 Skt.: Ajamatī A3 Anauon AFG See Map 3 F5 Andomatis fl. H Damodar Arrian 8.4.4 Skt.: Dāmodara E4 Aninacha R Nimsur? Ptol. 7.1.53; EIA Nimsur; Schwartzberg 1992, 330, 358 G5 Antibolei fl. R Meghna channel in Ptol. 7.1.18; 7.2.2 Ganges delta BAN 80 MAP 6 ASIA ORIENTALIS Grid Name Period Modern Name / Location References Antiochia = Alexandria B2 Aornos AFG See Map 99 C3 Aornos HRL Pir Sar? PAK André 1986, 294, 431; § Aornis HL Bosworth 1995, 178-80; NPauly 2 B3 Aparytai C Afridi AFG / PAK Hdt.