Ecosystem Services of Avicennia marina in the Red Sea Dissertation by Hanan Almahasheer In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia November, 2016 2 EXAMINATION COMMITTEE PAGE The dissertation by Hanan Almahasheer is approved by the examination committee. Committee Chairperson: Xabier Irigoien Committee Members: Carlos Duarte, Danielle Daffonchio, Catherine Lovelock 3 © November, 2016 Hanan Almahasheer All Rights Reserved 4 ABSTRACT Ecosystem Services of Avicennia marina in the Red Sea Hanan Almahasheer The Red Sea is an arid environment, without riverine inputs, oligotrophic waters and extreme temperature and salinity. Avicennia marina is the dominant vegetation in the shores of the Red Sea. However, little is known about their distribution, dynamics, and services. Therefore, the aim of this Ph.D. was to obtain the basic information needed to evaluate their role in the coastal ecosystems and quantify their services. With that objective we 1) estimated the past and present distribution of mangroves in the Red Sea, 2) investigated the growth, leave production and floration 3) examined the growth limiting factors 4) measured the nutrients and heavy metal dynamics in the leaves and 5) estimated carbon sequestration. We found an increase of about 12% in the last 41 years, which contrasts with global trends of decrease. The extreme conditions in the Red Sea contributed to limit their growth resulting in stunted trees. Hence, we surveyed Central Red Sea mangroves to estimate their node production with an average of 9.59 node y-1 then converted that number into time to have a plastochrone interval of 38 days. As mangroves are taller in the southern Red Sea where both temperature and nutrients are higher than the Central Red Sea, we assessed nutrient status Avicennia marina propagules and naturally growing leaves to find the leaves low in nutrient concentrations (N < 1.5 %, P < 0.09 %, Fe < 0.06) and that nutrients are reabsorbed before shedding the leaves (69%, 72% and 35% for N, P, and Fe respectively). As a result, we conducted a fertilization experiment (N, P, Fe and combinations) to find that iron additions alone led to significant growth responses. Moreover, we estimated their leaf production and used our previous estimates of both the total cover mangrove in the Red Sea along with plastochrone interval to assess their total nutrients flux per year to be 2414 t N, 139 t P and 98 t Fe. We found them to sequester 34 g m-2 y-1, which imply 4590 tons of carbon sequestered per year for the total mangroves covered by the Red Sea. 5 ARABIC ABSTRACT ﻣﻠﺨﺺ ﺧﺪﻣﺎت اﻟﻨﻈﺎم اﻟﺒﻴﺌﻲ ﻟﻨﺒﺎت ُاﻟﻘﺮم ﻓﻲ اﻟﺒﺤﺮ اﻷﺣﻤﺮ ﺣﻨﺎن اﻟﻤﻬﺎﺷﻴﺮ ﻳﻌﺪ اﻟﺒﺤﺮ اﻷﺣﻤﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺒﻴﺌﺎت اﻟﻘﺎﺣﻠﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻔﺘﻘﺮ ﻟﻠﻤﻮارد اﻟﻨﻬﺮﻳﺔ، وﺗﺘﻤﻴﺰ ﺑﻔﻘﺮ اﻟﻤﻐﺬﻳﺎت اﻟﻤﺎﺋﻴﺔ ودرﺟﺎت اﻟﺤﺮارة اﻟﻘﺼﻮى واﻟﻤﻠﻮﺣﺔ. إن ُاﻟﻘﺮم ﻣﻦ اﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﺎت اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺸﺮة ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﻮاﺣﻞ اﻟﺒﺤﺮ اﻷﺣﻤﺮ ﻏﻴﺮ أﻧﻨﺎ ﻻ ﻧﻌﺮف اﻟﻜﺜﻴﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت ﻋﻦ ﻣﺼﺎدر ﺗﻮزﻳﻌﻬﺎ وﺣﺮﻛﻴﺘﻬﺎ وﺧﺪﻣﺎﺗﻬﺎ. ﻟﺬا ﻓﺈن اﻟﻬﺪف ﻣﻦ رﺳﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﺪﻛﺘﻮراﻩ ﻫﻮ اﻟﺤﺼﻮل ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت اﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ اﻟﻼزﻣﺔ ﻟﺘﻘﻴﻴﻢ دورﻫﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻨﻈﻢ اﻟﺒﻴﺌﻴﺔ اﻟﺴﺎﺣﻠﻴﺔ، وﺗﻘﺪﻳﺮ ﺧﺪﻣﺎﺗﻬﺎ. ﻟﺬا ﻗﻤﻨﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ذﻟﻚ اﻟﻬﺪف ﻋﻠﻰ (1) ﺗﻘﺪﻳﺮ ﻣﺎﺿﻲ وﺣﺎﺿﺮ ﻧﺒﺎﺗﺎت اﻷﻳﻜﺎت اﻟﺴﺎﺣﻠﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺒﺤﺮ اﻷﺣﻤﺮ و (2) دراﺳﺔ اﻟﻨﻤﻮ واﻧﺘﺎج اﻷوراق واﻹزﻫﺎر (3) وﻓﺤﺺ ﻋﻮاﻣﻞ ﺣﺼﺮ اﻟﻨﻤﻮ (4) وﻗﻴﺎس اﻟﻤﻐﺬﻳﺎت، وﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ اﻟﻤﻌﺎدن اﻟﺜﻘﻴﻠﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻷوراق و(5) ﺗﻘﺪﻳﺮ ﻋﺰل اﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮن. وﺟﺪﻧﺎ زﻳﺎدة ﺑﻤﺎ ﻳﺮﺑﻮ ﻋﻠﻰ 12 ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺎﺋﺔ ﺧﻼل اﻟﻮاﺣﺪ واﻷرﺑﻌﻴﻦ ﻋﺎﻣﺎ اﻷﺧﻴﺮة ﻣﻤﺎ ﻻ ﻳﻨﺴﺠﻢ ﻣﻊ اﻻﺗﺠﺎﻫﺎت اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻨﻘﺼﺎن. أﺳﻬﻤﺖ اﻟﻈﺮوف اﻟﻘﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺒﺤﺮ اﻷﺣﻤﺮ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺤﺪ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻤﻮﻫﺎ، ﻣﻤﺎ أدى اﻟﻰ ﻇﻬﻮر أﺷﺠﺎر ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻜﺘﻤﻠﺔ اﻟﻨﻤﻮ. ﻟﺬﻟﻚ أﺟﺮﻳﻨﺎ ﻣﺴﺤﺎ ﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﺎت اﻷﻳﻜﺎت اﻟﺴﺎﺣﻠﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ وﺳﻂ اﻟﺒﺤﺮ اﻷﺣﻤﺮ ﻟﺘﻘــــــــﺪﻳﺮ اﻧﺘﺎج اﻟﻌﻘﺪ ﺑﻤﻌﺪل 9.59 ﻋﻘﺪة ﻟﻜﻞ ﺳﻨﺔ ﺛﻢ ﺗﻢ ﺗﺤﻮﻳﻞ ذﻟﻚ اﻟﺮﻗﻢ اﻟﻰ زﻣﻦ ﻟﻠﺤﺼـــــﻮل ﻋﻠﻰ ﻓﺎﺻﻞ زﻣﻨﻲ ﻟﻔﺘﺮة اﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﺑﻮاﻗــــــــــﻊ 38 ﻳﻮﻣﺎ. وﺑﻤـــــــﺎ أن ﻧﺒﺎﺗــــــــــــــﺎت اﻷﻳﻜﺎت اﻟﺴﺎﺣﻠﻴﺔ أﻃـــﻮل ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ اﻟﺠﻨﻮﺑﻴـــﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺒﺤﺮ اﻷﺣﻤﺮ ودرﺟـــــــﺔ اﻟﺤــــــــــــﺮارة واﻟﻤﻐﺬﻳــــــــــﺎت أﻋﻠـــــﻰ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻨﻄﻘــــــــﺔ وﺳﻂ اﻟﺒﺤﺮ اﻷﺣﻤﺮ. ﻗﻤﻨﺎ ﺑﺈﺟــﺮاء ﺗﻘﻴﻴــــــﻢ ﻟﻮﺿــﻊ اﻟﻤﻐﺬﻳـــــــــﺎت ﻟــﺒﺬور ﻧﺒــــﺎت اﻟﻘـــــﺮم وأوراﻗـــﻪ اﻟﻨــــــﺎﻣﻴــــــــــــــﺔ ﺑﺼـﻮرة ﻃﺒﻴﻌﻴــــﺔ ﻟـﻴﺘﺒﻴﻦ ﻟﻨــــــــﺎ أن اﻷوراق ﻣﻨﺨﻔﻀــــﺔ ﻣــــــــﻦ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻣﺤﺘـــــــــــﻮى اﻟﻨﺒـــــــــﺎت ﻣـــــﻦ اﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻــــــــــــﺮ اﻟﻐــﺬاﺋﻴـــــــــــــــــﺔ (N < 1.5 %, P < 0.09 %, Fe < 0.06) وأن اﻟﻤﻐـــــــــــــــﺬﻳﺎت ﻳﻌــــــــــﺎد اﻣﺘﺼﺎﺻﻬﺎ ﻗﺒــــــــﻞ ﺗﺴﺎﻗـــﻂ اﻷوراق (%69 و %72 و %35 ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻨﻴﺘﺮوﺟﻴﻦ و اﻟﻔﻮﺳﻔﻮر و اﻟﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﻮاﻟﻲ ). وﺑﻨﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ ذﻟﻚ، أﺟﺮﻳﻨﺎ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﺔ اﺧﺼﺎب ﻟﻠﻨﻴﺘﺮوﺟﻴﻦ واﻟﻔﻮﺳﻔﻮر واﻟﺤﺪﻳﺪ واﻟﺘﻮﻟﻴﻔﺎت، واﺳﺘﺨﻠﺼﻨﺎ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ أن اﻻﺿﺎﻓﺎت اﻟﺤﺪﻳﺪﻳﺔ ﻟﻮﺣﺪﻫﺎ ﻗﺪ أدت إﻟﻰ اﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺎت ﻧﻤﻮ ﻣﻌﻨﻮﻳﺔ. ﻛﻤﺎ ﻗﻤﻨﺎ ﺑﺘﻘﺪﻳﺮ إﻧﺘﺎج أوراﻗﻬﺎ واﺳﺘﺨﺪﻣﻨﺎ ﺗﻘﺪﻳﺮاﺗﻨﺎ اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﻤﺠﻤﻮع ﻏﻄﺎء ﻧﺒﺎﺗﺎت اﻷﻳﻜﺎت اﻟﺴﺎﺣﻠﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺒﺤﺮ اﻷﺣﻤﺮ، واﻟﻔﺎﺻﻞ اﻟﺰﻣﻨﻲ ﻟﻔﺘﺮة اﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻟﺘﻘﻴﻴﻢ ﻣﺠﻤﻮع اﻟﺘﺪﻓﻘﺎت اﻟﻐﺬاﺋﻴﺔ ﺳﻨﻮﻳﺎً ﺑﻮاﻗﻊ 139 ﻃﻦ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻔﻮﺳﻔﻮر و 2414 ﻃﻦ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻨﺘﺮوﺟﻴﻦ و 98 ﻃﻦ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺤﺪﻳﺪ، وأﺧﻴﺮاً ﺛﺒﺖ ﻟﻨﺎ ﻋﺰل ﺑﻮاﻗﻊ 34 ﺟﻢ ﻟﻜﻞ ﻣﺘﺮ ﻣﺮﺑﻊ ﻟﻜﻞ ﺳﻨﺔ، ﻣﻤﺎ ﻳﻌﻨﻲ وﺟﻮد 4590 ﻃﻦ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮن اﻟﻤﻌﺰول ﺳﻨﻮﻳﺎ ﻣﻦ إﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ ﻧﺒﺎﺗﺎت اﻷﻳﻜﺎت اﻟﺴﺎﺣﻠﻴﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﻏﻄﺎﻫﺎ اﻟﺒﺤﺮ اﻷﺣﻤﺮ. 6 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS First and foremost, Praise be to Allah Although only my name appears on the cover of this dissertation, many great people have supported me to finish it, my thanks and appreciation to all of them for their help during this unforgettable experience. I owe my deepest gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Xabier Irigoien, I have been fortunate to have an advisor who was so generous with his time and immense knowledge, not only that he assisted me in each step to complete this dissertation but also guided me when my steps faltered. I can’t thank him enough for encouraging me throughout this experience. I am also truly grateful to my co-supervisor Prof. Carlos Duarte. His guidance, insightful comments, and constructive criticisms have been a valuable input to my research. I am forever thankful to him for holding me to a higher research standard. I thank Prof. Catherine Lovelock and Prof. Danielle Daffonchio for accepting to be in my examination committee. I am extremely grateful to King Abdullah University of Science and Technology for the scholarship and financial support. My sincere thanks to both Eng. Abdulaziz Aljowair from King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology and Dr. Oscar Serrano from the University of Western Australia for sharing their expertise with me. 7 I thank KAUST central workshops, Coastal and Marine Resources Core Labs, in particular, Dr. Nabeel Alikunhi, Dr. Zenon Batang and to all boat captains for the significant help I received from them during my field work. To the coast guards for letting me use their boat when ours did not work. The Analytical core lab for providing me the training to analyze my samples. KAUST greenhouse Dr. Muppala Reddy for always letting me borrow anything I needed. And to the Presidency of Meteorology and Environment for providing weather data. To Mr. Abdullah Alwatied from the Saudi Wildlife Authority for sharing his knowledge. I also thank Dr. Joao Curdia for helping me in the Nursery work. And I warmly appreciate the help from Mrs. Christine Nelson, Ana Sofia Viegas, and Lily Chen regarding any administrative matters. I thankfully acknowledge KAUST school grade 5 and 11 students and their teachers Mr. Euan Riddell and Mrs. Caitlin McQuaid for helping me plant mangrove seedlings in the beach. I consider that my greatest achievements at KAUST and a memory I will cherish forever. I am forever thankful to my friends Widyan Alamoudi and Alanoud Albugami for their friendship, emotional support, and the extra hands whenever I needed in the lab. Finally, my deep and sincere gratitude to my beloved parents, brothers, and sisters for the encouragement and support throughout the whole period. This journey would not have been possible without their love, patience, and faith. I dedicate this milestone to them. 8 Table of Contents EXAMINATION COMMITTEE PAGE ..................................................................................... 2 ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... 4 ARABIC ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................. 5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................................. 6 Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................... 8 List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... 11 List of Tables ............................................................................................................................ 14 List of Supplementary Tables ............................................................................................ 17 List of Supplementary Figures ........................................................................................... 18 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 19 Mangroves ................................................................................................................................................................................ 19 1. Definition and history ......................................................................................................................... 19 2. Species and distribution ....................................................................................................................