WHEN STATES ‘COME OUT’: THE POLITICS OF VISIBILITY AND THE DIFFUSION OF SEXUAL MINORITY RIGHTS IN EUROPE A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Phillip Mansour Ayoub August 2013 © 2013 Phillip Mansour Ayoub WHEN STATES ‘COME OUT’: THE POLITICS OF VISIBILITY AND THE DIFFUSION OF SEXUAL MINORITY RIGHTS IN EUROPE Phillip Mansour Ayoub, Ph. D. Cornell University 2013 This dissertation explains how the politics of visibility affect relations among states and the political power of marginalized people within them. I show that the key to understanding processes of social change lies in a closer examination of the ways in which—and the degree to which—marginalized groups make governments and societies see and interact with their ideas. Specifically, I explore the politics of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) visibility. For a group that many observers have referred to as “an invisible minority,” the newfound presence and influence of LGBT people in many different nation states offers fresh opportunities for the study of socio-political change and the diffusion of norms. Despite similar international pressures, why are the trajectories of socio-legal recognition for marginalized groups so different across states? This question is not answered by conventional explanations of diffusion and social change focusing on differences in international pressures, the fit between domestic and international norms, modernization, or low implementation costs. Instead, specific transnational and international channels and domestic interest groups can make visible political issues that were hidden, and it is that visibility that creates the political resonance of international norms in domestic politics, and can lead to their gradual internalization. A state’s openness to international organizations and information flows has demonstrable effects on norm diffusion. It affects the ability of new ideas to enter domestic discourse. Furthermore, the degree to which domestic actors are embedded in transnational advocacy networks illuminates the issue and shapes the speed and direction of diffusion. Visibility has engendered the interactions between movements and states that empower people—mobilizing actors to demand change, influencing the spread of new legal standards, and weaving new ideas into the fabrics of societies. It is this process of “coming out” that leads to the socio-political recognition of rights that alters the situation for such groups. Ultimately, the politics of visibility is located at the intersection of international relations and social movement politics. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Phillip Ayoub was born in Boston, MA. After three years in Boston and three years in Amman, Jordan, his parents (from Europe and the Middle East) immigrated to the United States permanently, and he was raised in the small town of Castle Rock, WA. He received a B.A. in international studies from the University of Washington at age 19. Thereafter, he opened a small coffee shop in his hometown, which he managed for a year and then sold to fund an M.A. degree in political science at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. That degree took him to Berlin, where he worked as a tour guide and researcher at Linklaters Law Firm until he was 22. Despite this short foray into the legal field, he eagerly returned to academia, teaching at Lower Columbia College for two terms before starting his PhD coursework in the Department of Government at Cornell in 2007. In 2010 Phillip received a second M.A., and in 2013 a Ph.D., both in Government. As of summer 2013, he is Max- Weber Postdoctoral Fellow at the European University Institute in Florence, Italy. In 2014 he will join the faculty at Drexel University’s Department of History and Politics as an assistant professor. iii In memory of my father, Anwar Fayez Ayoub iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS For all the words in this dissertation, I could devote as much space to thanking the various people who have made it possible. It is only fitting that I begin these acknowledgements by formally thanking the members of my doctoral committee who, throughout my six years at Cornell, provided valued mentorship and invested long hours to guide this dissertation project. I can say, with some empirical certainty, that I benefited from unique support from my committee. I sent my advisors drafts titled “Version 3” and received detailed comments within the span of a few short weeks. In meeting their high demands, I received far more guidance than is typical or expected. First, I thank the chair of my committee, Peter Katzenstein, for being an exceptional mentor. When I was deciding which PhD program’s offer to accept, my undergraduate advisor, Christine Ingebritsen, suggested Cornell because of Peter, who she described as the “most inspiring scholar I will ever meet.” She was right. Peter has a rare talent for keeping his students motivated, striking an effective balance between vigorously demanding “excellence” and voicing sincere encouragement and praise. His skill as an advisor is legendary, but I would argue that the legend is an understatement, as his work ethic and his commitment to his students—both in their professional development and in their personal lives—are truly remarkable. He replied to emails within minutes (whether at 7am or 11pm) and had me read Goethe when the going got tough. I have learned so much from him, both in terms of the kind of mentor and the quality of human being I aspire to become. The phrase “standing on the shoulder of giants” has never been more appropriate. In addition to the excellent mentorship of Katzenstein, I am extremely v grateful for the guidance provided by the other members of this stellar committee. Sid Tarrow is a great intellectual to whom I owe an incredible debt of gratitude. Sid influenced this dissertation’s focus on contentious politics. Early on, he told me quite directly that I was in fact “writing about movements,” and left me little room after challenging me to explain to him how this might not be the case. He was, of course, correct. The breadth and richness of his insights—often going back to the French Revolution—and the plethora of time he has invested in my dissertation have made the outcome much better. Sid often told me not to worry so much about professional things, like straddling separate literatures: “Just present an idea, and do it well.” The ease with which he can think through important questions and problems has been, and will continue to be, an inspiration for me. It is an honor to also be a Tarrow student. Matt Evangelista was enthusiastic about the subject of this dissertation from the start, and the combination of intellectual and moral support that he provided was of great importance to me as I conducted my research. LGBT politics are only now beginning to capture the attention of political scientists—still far too little attention, but more than when I stumbled into his office in 2007—but Matt encouraged the study from the start. Early on, he agreed to supervise an independent course of study that I had designed. I was concerned that my coursework was not covering much of the work specifically related to gender and LGBT politics, so every two weeks Matt and I went over such readings together, discussing each piece as I wrote my prospectus. In response to my later drafts, he always asked the difficult questions, while simultaneously showing excitement for my work. I doubt that my academic trajectory and dissertation topic would have developed without Matt’s early enthusiasm, and I know that the outcome would have been weaker without his input. vi I do not know where to begin in terms of praise for Sarah Soule. She has offered brilliant comments on my various projects, while simultaneously helping me to navigate through many of the pragmatic elements of the profession. My first academic publication—which I would never have even presented absent her encouragement—is largely the result of her warm support. Her sense of the field (in sociology and politics) is astonishing, and she is gifted at helping students hone in on feasible projects and execute them. There is nothing minor about the role Sarah has played in the development of this dissertation. Even when I was based in Europe, I could schedule phone meetings with her to vet the first iteration of my ideas in brainstorming sessions. I have an extraordinary amount of respect for Sarah’s scholarship, kindness, and humility, and I am so grateful that I can call myself her student. Finally, Chris Anderson has graciously supported me in graduate school from the time I arrived in Ithaca. In his courses, he always encouraged me to find my voice: “I want to know the Ayoub theory of this!,” he would say. Like Sarah, he also imparts on his students a great deal of knowledge concerning the profession. His students greatly appreciate his sharp and approachable manner. Together, the five members of this committee have guided the stronger parts of this dissertation. I will take responsibility for the rest, while quoting a wonderful passage from Christopher Hitchens: “And there’s no help for it: you only find out what you ought to have known by pretending to know at least some of it already.” At Cornell, I owe a special amount of gratitude to the dedication and advice offered to me by Tom Pepinsky, Peter Enns, Jessica Weeks, Chris Way, Jonathan Kirshner, and Syd van Morgen. Historian Holly Case, who so kindly served as my vii external reader, has always encouraged and improved my work. Her East European Circle gave me an interdisciplinary platform to present and vet several ideas over the course of four years.