Public Diplomacy in Central America: The Rise of the People’s Republic of China Colin Robert Alexander Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Leeds Institute of Communications Studies December 2012 Declaration of Authorship The candidate confirms that the work submitted is his own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others. This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published with proper acknowledgement. The right of Colin Robert Alexander to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by his accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. © The University of Leeds and Colin Robert Alexander Acknowledgements Special thanks must go to my supervisors Prof. Gary Rawnsley and Dr. Robin Brown at the Institute of Communications Studies. Their critical appraisal of my work has been invaluable to my arrival at this point, and their knowledge of public diplomacy, and China and Taiwan has been extremely helpful. I would also like to thank all those who sat for interview in the UK and Central America. Thank you for taking the time to provide the information that you possess on this topic. Finally, I would like to extend my gratitude to my partner Kirsty who has been by my side throughout this process. Your support and encouragement has been wonderful. I must also thank my parents, Bob and Liz, for providing me with the financial security to undertake a PhD and for your sporadic proof-reading of various documents. Any errors are mine and mine alone. Abstract This thesis contributes to the growing literature on public diplomacy by examining the role it plays in Chinese and Taiwanese relations with Central America. This is an innovative project given that most literature on the international affairs of Central America considers it either through the gaze of its colonial past or its relations with other parts of the Americas. As such, until now there has been no substantial published work, academic or otherwise, dedicated to Sino – Central American relations. Furthermore, by taking the public diplomacy approach, this research has expanded the boundaries of modern understanding of the term and the uses for which it can be deployed by a nation-state to help meet their domestic and international goals. The research takes three neighbouring Central American Republics – Costa Rica, El Salvador and Guatemala – and positions the public diplomacy practices being undertaken by the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and Taiwan within these nation-states amidst wider political communications debates on public diplomacy and the troubled relationship between the PRC and Taiwan. Beyond mapping the variety of forms public diplomacy can take, this research has been able to document the various motivations for performing that nation-states have, in particular, public diplomacy’s purpose beyond its engagement with foreign publics. The research is the result of observations and 33 interviews conducted in Central America with leading diplomats, civil servants, journalists and experts between 2010 and 2011. Table of Contents Declaration of Authorship Acknowledgements Abstract Table of Contents List of Acronyms Preface 1 Chapter 1: Introduction 3 Central America in the Modern Era: ‘Goodbye Uncle Sam, Hello Uncle Chang’? 6 Diplomatic Recognition 8 Public Diplomacy 11 The PRC and Taiwan in Africa 26 Central America, China and its Public Diplomacy: A History 33 China in Latin America 34 Late 19th and Early 20th Century Engagement 35 The Cold War Years and Beyond 37 The Diplomatic Truce 45 Methodology, Questions and Research Design 47 Research Design 49 Methodology and Research Methods 51 Chapter 2: Costa Rica 58 Introduction 58 Costa Rica: Crossing the Taiwan Strait 59 The PRC’s Public Diplomacy in Costa Rica 69 Improving Infrastructure - ‘Stadium Diplomacy’ 70 Medical Diplomacy 76 Education Diplomacy 79 International Scholarships 80 ‘Instituto Confucio’ 84 Engagement with Costa Rica’s Domestic Media 89 Radio: ‘Que Conoce de China?’ 92 Newspapers: The Ambassador Addresses the Nation 94 Chinese Diaspora in Costa Rica 104 Challenges for the PRC’s Public Diplomacy 107 President Hu Jintao comes to Costa Rica 108 The Free Trade Agreement (FTA) 112 Conclusion 113 Chapter 3: El Salvador 119 Introduction 119 Taiwan in El Salvador: Its Controversial Past 121 Taiwan’s Public Diplomacy in El Salvador 131 Development Assistance 133 Medical Diplomacy 138 Education Diplomacy 140 International Scholarships 142 Taiwan’s Education Presence in El Salvador 145 Engagement with El Salvador’s Domestic Media 151 The Chinese Diaspora in El Salvador 159 Challenges to Taiwanese Diplomatic Incumbency 161 Conclusion 168 Chapter 4: Guatemala 174 Introduction 174 Taiwan and Guatemala: Still a Strong Diplomatic Relationship 175 Taiwan's Public Diplomacy in Guatemala 189 Infrastructure Improvement 189 Development Assistance 191 Medical Diplomacy 195 Education Diplomacy 199 International Scholarships 200 Taiwan’s Education Presence in Guatemala 205 Engagement with Guatemala’s Domestic Media 210 Challenges to Taiwan’s Diplomatic Incumbency 216 Conclusion 219 Chapter 5: Conclusion 223 Opportunities for Further Research 230 Appendices 234 Appendix A: Questions for Costa Rican Ambassador to the United Kingdom 234 Appendix B: Information about Interviewees 235 Appendix C: Interview Participant Consent Form 237 Appendix D: PRC Ambassador Li Changhua’s Quarterly Addresses in Nacion 239 Appendix E: Taiwan Embassy Press Release, Monday 21st February 2011 240 Appendix F: Taiwan Embassy Press Release, Monday 14th March 2011 242 Bibliography 244 Interviews 244 Academic and Media 246 List of Acronyms 4CG - Camara de Cooperacion y Comercio China – Guatemala (China – Guatemala Chamber of Cooperation and Commerce) ADB – Asian Development Bank AFECC - Anhui Foreign Construction Company (PRC) ALBA – Alianza Bolivariana para los pueblos de nuestra America (Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas) AP – Associated Press APEC – Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation ARENA – Alianza Republica Nacionalista (Republican National Alliance) (El Salvador) ASAC - Asociacion Salvadoreña de Amistad con China (Association of El Salvadoran Friendship with China) BBC – British Broadcasting Corporation CA4 – Central America Four CAFTA-DR – Central America and Dominican Republic Free Trade Agreement CCP – Chinese Communist Party CCPIT - China Council for the Promotion of International Trade (PRC) CIA – Central Intelligence Agency (USA) CAN – Central News Agency (Taiwan) CNN – Cable News Network (USA) CPAFFC - Chinese People’s Association for Friendship with Foreign Countries (PRC) CRI – China Radio International (PRC) DPA – Deutche Presse Agentur DPP – Democratic Progressive Party (Taiwan) ECFA – Economic Cooperation Framework Agreement FMLN - Frente Farabundo Marti para la Liberacion Nacional (Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front) (El Salvador) FTA – Free Trade Agreement GDP – Gross Domestic Product GIO – Government Information Office (Taiwan) ICDF – International Cooperation and Development Fund (Taiwan) JAICA – Japan International Cooperation Agency KMT – Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalist Party) (Taiwan) LSE – London School of Economics (UK) MIDEPLAN - Ministerio de Planificacion National y Politica Economica (Ministry of National Planning and Political Economy) (Costa Rica) MMM – Mobile Medical Mission (Taiwan) NCREE - National Centre for Research on Earthquake Engineering (Taiwan) NED – National Endowment for Democracy (USA) NGO – Non-governmental Organisation OAS – Organisation of American States PARLACEN – The Central American Parliament PLN – Partido de Liberacion Nacional (National Liberation Party) (Costa Rica) PRC – The People’s Republic of China PROCOMER – Promotora del Comercio Exterior de Costa Rica (Foreign Trade Corporation of Costa Rica) PWCA – Political Warfare Cadres Academy (Taiwan) RECOPE – Refinadora Costariricense de Petroleo (Costa Rican Petroleum Refinery) ROC – Republic of China RTI – Radio Taiwan International SDT – Seismic Design Technology SEGEPLAN – Secretaría de Planificación y Programación de la Presidencia (Secretariat of Planning and Programming at the Office of the President) (Guatemala) SICA – Sistema de la Integracion de Centroamericana (Central American Integration System) SINARTA - National Radio and Television System of Costa Rica SOAS – School of Oriental and Asian Studies (UK) TRMPC – Taiwan Roots Medical Peace Corps UCR – Universidad de Costa Rica (University of Costa Rica) UFC – United Fruit Company (USA) UN – United Nations UNCEH – United Nations Comisión para el Esclarecimiento Histórico (Commission for Historical Clarification) (Guatemala) UNVCS – United Nations Comisión de la Verdad para El Salvador (Truth Commission for El Salvador) USAID – United States Agency for International Development USC – University of Southern California (USA) USIA – United States Information Agency WACL – World Anti-Communist League WHO – World Health Organisation Preface At the end of World War II it was agreed that Japan would cede the island of Taiwan to the Republic of China (ROC), which resided in Beijing at that time. However, with Communist victory in the Chinese civil war in 1949, the ROC evacuated Beijing and were replaced by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The ROC relocated to Taiwan where they became a government in exile. To this day, the People’s Republic of China (PRC) considers